Faulting in The Earth

Faulting in the Earth
Earthquake rupture can be described in a few ways
36 mm/yr NORTH
AMERICA
PACIFIC
San Andreas Fault, Carrizo Plain
(1) Geometrically: angles or vectors describe the fault orientation and slip
direction.
(2) Graphically: focal mechanisms describe two possible fault orientations
and slip directions.
(3) Mathematically: moment tensors describe an oriented forces that mimics
the rupture physics and can provide a moment magnitude
Fault Geometry Represented Geometrically
Three angles: strike , dip , slip , or
Two orthogonal vectors: fault normal n and slip vector d
Kanamori and Cipar, 1974
Treating the fault as rectangular, the dimension along strike is the fault length
and dimension in the dip direction is the fault width.
Slip Angle  Characterizes Fault Type
Most earthquakes consist of some combination of these motions,

and have slip angles between these values
P-wave Energy Radiation
Map View of a Strike-Slip Fault
Lithosphere deforms elastically Then the fault slips and the stored
before fault slip elastic energy is released as
traveling wave energy
P-wave Energy Radiation
Map View of a Strike-Slip Fault
X1
X2
Around an earthquake, the first motion of the radiated wave is either

compressional or dilatational.
P-wave radiation lobes in 3-D
This pattern in the same for all simple faults irrespective of fault orientation
Realize that this is a plot of wave energy or amplitude, not the wave itself. The
energy travels outward from the earthquake source as a spherical wave.
S-wave energy radiation from a shear plane source
Around an earthquake, the first motion of the radiated spherical wave is polarized
either to the left or right relative to path travelled.
Energy radiated to distant stations is usually downward:
Seismic rays bend back up to surface due to velocity increase with depth
Stein & Wysession, 2003
Primary energy to distant stations is radiated out of lower focal hemisphere

Examine the quadrants of a small box about the Earthquake rupture:

P wave first motions
recorded
by a seismometer
We know that a P wave has either compressional or dilatational motion depending

on the quadrant.
When the P wave arrives at a seismometer from below, a vertical component

seismogram records first motion up (compression) or down (dilatation).
First motions can therefore be used to define the four quadrants.

Fault Description: The Focal Mechanism
A depiction of the geometry of faulting based on
the radiation pattern of wave energy
Focal mechanisms are determined using a lot of

seismometers located all around the earthquake.
Comparison of P-wave energy lobes
and focal mechanism in 3-D
P wave first motions
recorded
by a seismometer
Quadrants are separated by nodal planes: the fault plane and auxiliary
plane perpendicular to it.
First motions alone cannot resolve which is the actual fault plane.
To find the fault plane:
Use geologic or geodetic information, such

as the trend of the fault or observations of
ground motion.
Aftershocks sometimes occur on and thus

delineate the fault plane.
If the earthquake is large enough, the finite

time required for slip to progress along the
fault causes variations in the waveforms
observed at different directions from the
fault, so these directivity effects can be
used to infer the fault plane.
1999 Hector Mine Earthquake (CA)

Magnitude 7.1
FOCAL MECHANISMS FOR BASIC FAULTS

FOCAL MECHANISMS FOR DIFFERENT FAULTS
All have same N-S striking fault plane, but with varying slip angles

INFER STRESS ORIENTATIONS
FROM FOCAL MECHANISMS
Simple model predicts faulting on

planes 45° from maximum and
minimum compressive stresses
These stress directions are halfway

between nodal planes
Most compressive (P) and

least compressive stress (T) axes
can be found by bisecting the
dilatational and compressional
quadrants

Examples
TRENCH-NORMAL
CONVERGENCE -
MECHANISMS show ALEUTIAN TRENCH
both expected plate 54 mm/yr
boundary deformation
Aleutian Trench: thrust

San Andreas: strike slip BASIN & RANGE
Gulf of California: normal & PACIFIC wrt
EXTENSION NORTH
strike slip AMERICA
pole
STRIKE SLIP -
And other boundary SAN ANDREAS
zone deformation
LA BASIN EXTENSION -
Basin & Range: normal SHORTENING GULF OF CALIFORNIA
Los Angeles Basin: thrust

NORTH EURASIA
AMERICA
EXTENSION STRIKE-SLIP
TERCEIRA GLORIA
RIFT TRANSFORM OBLIQUE CONVERGENCE
NORTH AFRICA
NUBIA
Argus et al., 1989

NUBIA-SOMALIA SPREADING
Normal fault mechanisms show extension across East African Rift
Seismic Moment Tensors
Seismic Moment Tensor: a
general mathematical
description of fault rupture
It is a point source
mathematical model of an
earthquake
Mathematically, a simple earthquake rupture can
be described by a FORCE DOUBLE COUPLE
Pearce, 1977
One couple is oriented in the slip direction with forces on

opposite sides of the fault plane.
The other is oriented on opposite sides of the auxiliary plane.
We can generalize the double-couple idea to nine possible force couples.
These make up the components of the seismic moment tensor
The nine force-couple values

(“strengths”) can be written into
a 3x3 matrix called the Moment
Tensor.
M =
[Mxx Mxy Mxz
Myx Myy Myz
Mzx Mzy Mzz ]
The xyz-basis is geographically
fixed, combinations of the
couples are then used to
describe a source of any
orientation.
Given the Strike Dip and Rake (or Slip) of a double-couple
Earthquake, the Moment Tensor can be determined:
Mxx = −Mo(sinδcosλsin2φ + sin2δsinλsin 2φ)

Mxy = Myx = Mo(sinδcosλcos2φ + sin2δsinλsinφcosφ)
Myy = Mo(sinδcosλsin2φ − sin2δsinλcos2φ)
Mxz = Mzx = −Mo(cosδcosλcosφ + cos2δsinλsinφ)
Myz = Mzy = −Mo(cosδcosλsinφ − cos2δsinλcosφ)
Mzz = Mo(sin2δsinλ)
Φ = strike
δ = dip
λ = rake
Mo = moment
Note: Moment tensors can describe earthquake rupture that is

more complicated than the simple focal mechanism approach
Icelandic Volcano Dynamics
(sub-glacial)
What type of source

would give rise to this
closely spaced (in time
and space) set of focal
mechanisms?
Icelandic Volcano Dynamics
(sub-glacial)
Moment Tensors are used as the source term
in numerical simulations of seismic waves.
Global Moment Tensor Web Page
http://www.globalcmt.org/
The Global CMT Project involves four main activities:
1.Systematic determination, with a three-to-four-month delay, of moment tensors for

earthquakes with M>5 globally, and accumulation of the results in the CMT
catalog.
2.Rapid determination of moment tensors for earthquakes with M>5.5 globally and
quick dissemination of results ("quick CMTs").
3.Curation of the CMT catalog, which contains more than 25,000 moment tensors for
earthquakes since 1976.
4.Development and implementation of improved methods for the quantification of
earthquake source characteristics on a global scale.
ACTUAL EARTHQUAKE FAULT GEOMETRIES CAN BE
MUCH MORE COMPLICATED THAN A RECTANGLE
1992 Landers, California Mw 7.3 SCEC Website

ACTUAL EARTHQUAKE FAULT GEOMETRIES CAN BE
MUCH MORE COMPLICATED THAN A RECTANGLE

EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE
Earliest measures use a
dimensionless number
measured various ways,
including:
ML local (Richter) magnitude

Mb body wave magnitude
Ms surface wave magnitude
Measured for distant

recordings
and
there is NO direct tie to physics

of faulting
Modern Method:
SEISMIC MOMENT
Gives insight into the

amount of slip if we know
the fault area from
These parameters are determined from waveform
aftershocks, geodesy, or analysis of the seismograms produced by an
earthquake
other information.
Based on physics of
faulting.
COMPARE EARTHQUAKES
USING SEISMIC MOMENT
M0
Magnitudes, moments (dyn-cm),

fault areas, and fault slips for
several earthquakes
Alaska & San Francisco differ
much more than Ms implies
M0 more useful measure
Units: dyne-cm or N-m
A Newton-meter is dimensionally equal to a
joule, the SI unit of energy and work.
However, it is not appropriate to express a
torque in joules - torque and energy are
physically different despite being
dimensionally equivalent.
Moment magnitude Mw
Mw defined from moment and is used to scale the moment so that we can
compare moment to the other (more recognizable) scales
Comparison: Moment magnitude Mw
Magnitudes saturate:
No matter how big the earthquake
mb never exceeds ~6.4
Ms never exceeds ~8.4
However:
Mw is defined from the moment so it never
saturates
Earthquakes of a given magnitude are ~10 times less frequent than
those one magnitude smaller.
An M7 earthquake occurs approximately monthly, and an earthquake

of M> 6 about every three days.

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Faulting in the Earth

Earthquake rupture can be described in a few ways

San Andreas Fault, Carrizo Plain

Kanamori and Cipar, 1974

Most earthquakes consist of some combination of these motions,

Map View of a Strike-Slip Fault

Map View of a Strike-Slip Fault

Around an earthquake, the first motion of the radiated wave is either

Stein & Wysession, 2003

Primary energy to distant stations is radiated out of lower focal hemisphere

Stein & Wysession, 2003

We know that a P wave has either compressional or dilatational motion depending

When the P wave arrives at a seismometer from below, a vertical component

First motions can therefore be used to define the four quadrants.

Focal mechanisms are determined using a lot of

Use geologic or geodetic information, such

Aftershocks sometimes occur on and thus

If the earthquake is large enough, the finite

1999 Hector Mine Earthquake (CA)

Stein & Wysession, 2003

Stein & Wysession, 2003

Simple model predicts faulting on

These stress directions are halfway

Most compressive (P) and

Stein & Wysession, 2003

Aleutian Trench: thrust

Stein & Wysession, 2003

Argus et al., 1989

One couple is oriented in the slip direction with forces on

These make up the components of the seismic moment tensor

The nine force-couple values

Mxx = −Mo(sinδcosλsin2φ + sin2δsinλsin 2φ)

Note: Moment tensors can describe earthquake rupture that is

What type of source

The Global CMT Project involves four main activities:

1.Systematic determination, with a three-to-four-month delay, of moment tensors for

1992 Landers, California Mw 7.3 SCEC Website

1992 Landers, California Mw 7.3 SCEC Website

ML local (Richter) magnitude

Measured for distant

there is NO direct tie to physics

Gives insight into the

Magnitudes, moments (dyn-cm),

An M7 earthquake occurs approximately monthly, and an earthquake

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