Analysis of Spatial Data

Josef Fürst

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Learning objectives

 In this section you will learn:

• how thematic overlays work,
• overview of the diversity of spatial analysis tools and
• overview of methods to query and select by attributes
and spatial criteria to serve as a basis for GIS based
decision support.
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Outline

 Introduction
 Geometric overlay
 Analysis in attribute space
 Integrated analysis of spatial and thematic data
 Raster-GIS functions
 Example: Delineation of hydrologically similar areas
 Summary
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Introduction

 Most important functionality of GIS

 GIS data basis as a model of reality
 „single layer“ analyses
 „multiple layers“ analyses
 Useful distinction from a technical viewpoint:
• Functions for analysis in attribute space
• Functions for analysis by spatial (topological) criteria
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Geometric overlay

 Statements about a location combining information

from 2 or more thematic maps  „overlay“ of 2 or
more maps
 requires common spatial reference
 In raster-GIS automatically met
 Geometric overlay (intersection) in vector-GIS
required overlay operators
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Geometric overlay

 Topological fragmentation
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Analysis in attribute space

 query,
 generalisation,
 calculation.
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Query
Analysis in attribute
space

 Selection of attribute data, without changes in

database
 SQL (Structured Query Language)
SELECT KENNUNG, STATIONSNAME, X_KOORDINATE, Y_KOORDINATE,
MESSPUNKT
FROM HEADER_HYDRO
WHERE MESSVARIABLE = ´GRUNDWASSERSTAND´ AND MESSGERAET =
´LICHTLOT´;
 ArcView 3.x:
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Generalisation
Analysis in attribute
space

 Classification of data by user defined rules, without

change of existing attributes
• Clearer view of inherent patterns
 Examples:
• Weekly and monthly precipitation depths,
• Soil classification by hydrological criteria,
• Classification of slopes for stability analysis,
• Hydrological Response Units (HRU)
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Generalisation
Analysis in attribute
space

 Generalisation by classifying an attribute

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Calculations
Analysis in attribute
space

 Operations:
• arithmetic,
• mathematical (funktions) and
• logical (binary)
 E.g.: Amount of groundwater = Thickness x porosity
 SQL DBMS like Oracle or MS Access such attributes
are commonly stored in a „view“ or „query“
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Integrated analysis of spatial and
thematic data
 The focus of GIS
 Power of analytical functions and software
architecture varies
• Wide range from specialised modules for catchment
analysis (e.g., WMS) to libraries of elementary general
purpose spatial operators
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Selection, classification and measuring

Integrated analysis

 combined spatial and attribute based selection

 E.g.: Select features of active themes that Are
completely within the selected features of
Grenzen3.shp
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Classification
Integrated analysis

 (Re-)assignment of thematic attributes

 Examples:
• Elevation zones from DEM
• Re-classification of a soil map by hydrological criteria
• Scale-dependent reduction of number of attribute
values, e.g. in a map of land cover
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Measure
Integrated analysis

 Assess numbers, distances, lengths, areas, volumes

• Many of these are automatically maintained in GIS
(area and perimeter of polygons, length of lines),
• Sometimes elaborate procedures (e.g. travel time as a
function of road conditions, vehicle and current traffic)
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Overlays (Intersection)
Integrated analysis

 M:N relationship between entities of 2 maps with

different geometrical basis
 1:N relationship between a polygon and ist attributes
by geometric-topological intersection
 After intersection analysis is done in a single layer
 Operations:
• arithmetic (addition, multiplication, ...) and
• logical (AND, OR, XOR) operations as well as
• Application of conditions (rules)
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Overlays (Intersection)
Integrated analysis

 Example of arithmetic overlay

1
2
2
1

3 3

D u r c h w u r z e lu n g s t ie f e [ c m ] B o d e n fe u c h te [% ]
W T ID W T IE F E Root depth B F ID B F E U C H T E Soil moisture
1 50 1 23
2 75 3 34
3 89 2 18

In te rs e c t
Water available for plants
1 /1 2 /2 P fla n z e n v e r fü g b a r e s W a s s e r [m m ]
P W A S S E R = W T IE F E * B F E U C H T E / 1 0
2 /1 W T ID W T IE F E B F ID B F E U C H T E P W A S S E R
1 50 1 23 115
3 /3 2 75 1 23 173
3 /1 2 75 2 18 135
3 89 1 23 205
3 /2 3 89 3 34 303
3 89 2 18 160
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Overlays (Intersection)
Integrated analysis

 Example of a logical overlay

1
2
2
1

3 3

D u r c h w u r z e lu n g s t ie f e [ c m ] B o d e n fe u c h te [% ]
W T ID W T IE F E
1 50
Root depth B F ID B F E U C H T E
1 23
Soil moisture
2 75 3 34
3 89 2 18

In te rs e c t
Root depth > 80 AND Moisture < 20

1 /1 2 /2 T ie f e D u r c h w u r z e lu n g , g e r in g e F e u c h te
W T IE F E > 8 0 A N D B F E U C H T E < 2 0
2 /1 W T ID W T IE F E B F ID B F E U C H T E
1 50 1 23
3 /3 2 75 1 23
3 /1 2 75 2 18
3 89 1 23
3 /2 3 89 3 34
3 89 2 18
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Overlays (Intersection)
Integrated analysis

 Point in Polygon overlay by Spatial Join in ArcView

3.x: groundwater sites receive an attribute „Land cover“
(Bedeckung) by spatial join with the map „Land cover“
(Bodenbedeckung).
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Overlays (Intersection)
Integrated analysis

 Line in Polygon overlay: rivers are assigned the surrounding

land cover by INTERSECT of the maps „Rivers“ and „Land
cover“
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Surface operations
Integrated analysis

 neighbourhood of a point is included in the evaluation

for this point
 Generally a „smooth“ surface is assumed
• Topographic functions (slope, aspect, relief),
• illumination (e.g. hillshading),
• Pseudo-3D displays (Perspective) and
• Interpolation.
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Connectivity
Integrated analysis

 Entities with common properties AND spatial

connection
• Contiguity
• Proximity: based on measures of distance, including
time, cost, etc. E.g. buffer zones, Thiessen polygons,
flow times).
• Spread: e.g. floods, pollutants.
• Seek: optimal paths, according to decision rules,
• Network functions: utilities, drainage network.
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Connectivity
Integrated analysis

 contiguity:
• E.g: nature reserve should contain forest, swamp and
rivers, min. size 400 km2 and nowhere narrower than
10 km.
Bodenbedeckung Zusammenhängende Flächen

Wald Acker

Sumpf Fluss
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Connectivity
Integrated analysis

 proximity:
• E.g.: buffer zones near rivers: width depends on land
cover
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Connectivity
Integrated analysis

 proximity:
• E.g: Thiessen-Polygons: raster based  assign
proximity, vector based  line of symmetry
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Connectivity
Integrated analysis

 Spread (flood, noise, pollutants in groundwater)

• in GIS usually only simplified solutions
 Seek
• Find optimal path using decision rules 1
1
1 2
 Network functions (roads, 1
1
1
1
sewers, utilities, rivers) 2 1 1 W 1

a ld
• Movement of resources 2 2

a is t
1

Fe l
1
• Strahler order 1

da
3

is t
2
1
3 2

A is t
3

7
D ona u 7
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Raster-GIS functions

 Local functions
• Only one cell, neighbouring cells do not influence result
 Focal functions
• Result for a cell is based on neighbourhood cells (linear
filter, mean, median, standard deviation )
 Zonal functions
• Evaluated for a zone, i.e. for all cells with a common
value
 Global functions
• Calculations for the whole grid (distances, delineation of
catchments)
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Example: Delineation of hydrological
response units
 Semi-distributed conceptual models with HRU
concept (e.g. PRMS)
 Important steps:
• Selection of input data: 5 layers, DEM (slope, aspect),
land use, soil, geology
• classification input data into small number of categories
(3-6).
• Overlay of input layers.
• Reduction of the resulting number of unique attribute
combinations (HRU) by analysis and classification in
DBMS
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Water balance of the Danube basin

B odenbedeckung

 HRU using
1 1 K la s s e n

DEM (250 m resolution),

maps of land cover and
hydrological sub-basins K la s s ifik a tio n
3 K la s s e n
K la s s ifik a t io n
3 K la s s e n

B odenbedeckung
W a ld , G r a s ,
v e g e ta tio n s fr e i

O v e r la y

Z o n e n ( H R U ) f ü r B ila n z m o d e ll
O v e r la y a u s k la s s if iz ie r t e m D H M ,
B o d e n b e d e c k u n g , E in z u g s -
g e b ie ts g r e n z e n
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Summary
 Analysis of spatial data is the most important function
of GIS
 Single-layer analysis is done within 1 layer
 Multi-layer analysis
• Transform into single-layer problem by geometric-
topological intersection  1:M relationship between
object and attributes.
 Analyses in attribute space include query,
generalisation and calculations based on the
attributes only
 Integrated analysis of spatial and attribut data
involves attributes, location and topology
 selection, classification and measure, overlay
(intersection), surface operations, analysis of spatial
connectivity