Global Navigation Satellite System

(GNSS)

• GPS- Global Position System(USA)

• GLONASS- Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite
System (Russian)
• GALILEO – European Global Navigation
Satellite System(EU)
Global Positioning System (GPS)
 The History of GPS
• US Department of Defense has need for very precise navigation
Feasibility studies begun in 1960’s.
• In 1973, the US Air Force proposed a new system for navigation
using satellites
• The system is known as: Navigation System with Timing and Ranging:
Global Positioning System or NAVSTAR GPS
• Pentagon appropriates funding in 1973.
• First satellite launched in 1978.
• The current global positioning system (GPS) is the culmination of
years of research and unknown millions of dollars.
– The current system is managed by the U.S Air Force for the Department
of Defense (DOD).
– The current system became fully operational June 26, 1993
when the 24th satellite was lunched.
– Full Operational Capability declared by the Secretary of Defense at
00:01 hours on July 17, 1995
 Three Parts
• Space segment

• Control segment

• User segment

4
 Three Segments of the GPS
Downlink in L band
L1 & L2
Space Segment -Coded ranging signals
-satellite positions
-Time
Uplink data in -almanac
S band
-Predicted Sat orbit info
-clock corrn. factor

User Segment

Control Segment

Ground
Antennas
Master Control Station Monitor Stations
Space Segment
 Space Segment
27 satellites: 24 operational and 3 spare
Space Segment
 GSP satellite vehicles (SVs):
two generations: block I and block II

GPS block II
weigh ~1900 lbs.

GPS block I built by Rockwell

Currently: 26 Block II, 2 Block IIR,
no Block I satellites are active.
Picture of a Block II Satellite
 Space Segment
• The space segments nominally consists of 24 satellites,
currently:
– 28 (24+4 spares) active GPS satellites (26 Block II, 2 Block IIR)
– Constellation design: at least 4 satellites in view from any location at any time
to allow navigation (solution for 3 position + 1 station clock unknowns) with
elevation more than 9.5°.

• GPS Orbit characteristics:

– Semi-Major Axis (Radius): 26,600 km(20200Km altitude)
– Orbital Period : 11 h 58 min
– Orbit Inclination: 55 degrees to equatorial plane
– Number of Orbit Planes: 6 (60 degree spacing)
– Number of Satellites: 24 (4 spares)
– Approximate Mass: 815 kg, 7.5 year lifespan
– Data Rate (message): 50 bit/sec
– PRN (Pseudo-Random Noise) Codes: Satellite-dependent Codes
– Transmit, Frequencies L-Band L1: 1575.42 MHtz
L2: 1227.60 MHtz
 Space Segment
• Speed of satellites
• relative to the Earth center approximately 4 km/s,
• relative to the user up to 2.8 km/s.
• GPS satellites repeat their ground tracks after: 1 sidereal day = 23 h 56 min
= 2 orbital periods. The same geometry is reached 4 minutes earlier every
day.
• 2:1 commensurability of GPS revolution period with Earth rotation leads
to resonance effects with gravity field (many maneuvers necessary).
• Satellites remain above horizon for approx 5 hours, approx 4500nm
coverage
• The orbital position is constantly monitored and updated by the ground
stations.
• The GPS satellites are nothing more than a set of clocks in the sky
• Each satellite has a very accurate atomic clock, 0.000000003 seconds
(Hydrogen Maser Atomic Clocks)
• These clocks lose one second every 2,739,000 million years
• Each satellite is identified by number and broadcasts a unique signal.
• The signal travels at the speed of light.
 Control Segment

US Space Command

Cape Canaveral
Hawaii
Kwajalein Atoll

Diego Garcia
Ascension Is.

Master Control Station Monitor Station Ground Antenna

 Control Segment
• Ground stations located at various parts of the world,
Consisting of
– four monitor stations
– an upload station
– a Master Control Station
• Monitor Stations- track the satellites ,obtain data from
satellite and transmit to Master Control Station
• The Master control station
– Receives data from monitor stations
– makes the necessary computations and predictions of future path
of SV,
– determines the errors of SV’s atomic clock
– Updated data are fed to the Upload station
• Upload Station- Corrections /updates are uplinked to the
satellites three times a day
 Control Segment
• Master Control Station is located at the Consolidated Space Operations
Center (CSOC) at Flacon Air Force Station near Colorado Springs
– CSOC
– Track the satellites for orbit and clock determination
– Time synchronization
– Upload the Navigation Message
– Manage DOA
• Denial of Accuracy (DOA)
– The US military uses two approaches to prohibit use of the full
resolution of the system
– Selective Availability (SA) - noise is added to the clock signal and
the navigation message has “lies” in it
– Anti-Spoofing (AS) - P-code is encrypted
– The military sometimes turns off both DOA techniques
User Segment
 User Segment
• User Segment:
• All GPS receivers on land, on sea, in the air and in space.

• Extremely broad user community with applications of the GPS for:

– Military.
– Marine, aeronautical and terrestrial navigation.
– Search and rescue
– Disaster relief.
– Remote controlled vehicle and robot guidance.
– Continental Drift
– Surveying
– Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
– Precise Timing
– Iceberg Tracking
– Archaeological Expeditions
– Mobile Multimedia
– Recreation.
 User Segment
• The Receiver
– Consist of a receiving antenna, receiver with built in computer and display
– The receiver collects, decodes and processes the satellite signals.
– The basic receiver does not include a transmitter.
– Different levels of precision are available depending upon the type
– Two types
• single frequency receiver
• & dual frequency(higher accuracy) receiver
– The receiver determines its location by trilateration(triangulation).
– Locks on to one satellite, gets info of other satellite, selects four satellite most suitable to
calculate the position fix
– Displays the fix obtained , and other info such as course & speed made good
• Four Basic Functions of GPS Receiver
– Position and coordinates.
– The distance and direction between any two waypoints, or a position and a waypoint.
– Travel progress reports.
– Accurate time measurement.
 system into five conceptual pieces
• step 1: using satellite ranging
• step 2: measuring distance from satellite
• step 3: getting perfect timing
• step 4: knowing where a satellite is in space
• step 5: identifying errors
step 1: using satellite ranging
GPS is based on satellite ranging, i.e. distance from satellites
…satellites are precise reference points
…we determine our distance from them
we will assume for now that we know exactly where satellite is
and how far away from it we are…

if we are lost and we know

that we are 11,000 miles
from satellite A…
we are somewhere on a sphere
whose middle is satellite A
and diameter is 11,000 miles
 if we also know that we are
12,000 miles from satellite B
…we can narrow down where
we must be…
only place in universe is on
circle where two spheres intersect

if we also know that we are

13,000 miles from satellite C
…our situation improves
immensely…
only place in universe is at
either of two points where
three spheres intersect
 GPS Trilateration
• Each satellite knows its
position and its distance from
the center of the earth.
• Each satellite constantly
broadcasts this information.
• With this information and the
calculated distance, the
receiver calculates its position.
• Just knowing the distance to
one satellite doesn’t provide
enough information.

22
 GPS Trilateration--cont.
• When the receiver knows
its distance from only one
satellite, its location could
be anywhere on the earths
surface that is an equal
distance from the satellite.
• Represented by the circle in
the illustration.
• The receiver must have
additional information.

23
 GPS Trilateration--
cont.
With signals from two satellites, the receiver
can narrow down its location to just two
points on the earths surface.
Were the two circles intersect.

24
 GPS Trilateration--
cont.
• Knowing its distance from
three satellites, the
receiver can determine its
location because there is
only two possible
combinations and one of
them is out in space.
• In this example, the
receiver is located at b.
• The more satellite that are
used, the greater the
potential accuracy of the
position location.
25
three can be enough to determine position…
one of the two points generally is not possible (far off in space)

two can be enough if you know your elevation

…why?
one of the spheres can be replaced with Earth…
…center of Earth is “satellite position”

generally four are best and necessary….why this is a little later

this is basic principle behind GPS…

…using satellites for triangulation
Position is Based on Time
Signal leaves satellite at
time “T”

Signal is picked up by the

T+3 receiver at time “T + 3”
Distance between satellite and
receiver = “3 times the speed of
light”
 Pseudo Random Noise Code

Time
Difference

Satellite PRN

Receiver PRN
step 2: measuring distance from satellite
because GPS based on knowing distance from satellite
…we need to have a method for determing how far
away the satellites are
use velocity x time = distance

GPS system works by timing how long it takes a radio signal

to reach the receiver from a satellite…
…distance is calculated from that time…
radio waves travel at speed of light: 180,000 miles per second

problem: need to know when GPS satellite started

sending its radio message
requires very good clocks that measure short times…
…electromagnetic waves move very quickly

use atomic clocks

came into being during World War II; nothing to do with GPS
-physicists wanted to test Einstein’s ideas about gravity and time
• previous clocks relied on pendulums
• early atomic clocks looked at vibrations of quartz crystal
…keep time to < 1/1000th second per day
..not accurate enough to assess affect of gravity on time
…Einstein predicted that clock on Mt. Everest
would run 30 millionths of a second faster
than clock at sea level
…needed to look at oscillations of atoms
principle behind atomic clocks…
atoms absorb or emit electomagnetic energy in discrete amounts
that correspond to differences in energy between different
configurations of the atoms
when atom goes from one energy state to lower one,
it emits an electromagnetic wave of characteristic frequency
…known as “resonant frequency”

these resonant frequencies are identical for every atom

of a given type:
cesium 133 atoms: 9,192,631,770 cycles/second

cesium can be used to create extraordinarily precise clock

(advances also led to using hydrogen and rubidium)

GPS clocks are cesium clocks

now that we have precise clocks…
…how do we know when the signals left the satellite?

this is where the designers of GPS were clever…

…synchronize satellite and receiver so
they are generating same code at same time

analogy:
2 people separated by some distance both start yelling
one, two, three…at same time
person 2 hears “one” shouted by person 1 when
person 2 says “three”
…if you both said one at same time,
the distance away person 2 is from person 1
is time difference between “one” and “three”
times the velocity of the sound

let us examine GPS satellite signals more closely…

 Pseudo Range and True Range
• The principal used in obtaining a GPS fix is by ranging
– Range of SV from receiver is calculated by finding the time taken by the satellite signal
to reach the receiver
– This is done by receiver simultaneously generating same signal and comparing it with
signal from the satellite
– For this both satellite clocks and receiver clocks are synchronised.
• If the time taken by the satellite signal is not measured accurately, error in range
calculation occurs, this can happen because of
– Lack of synchronisation of Satellite & receiver clocks.
– Errors caused due to atmospheric delay when signals travels through ionosphere &
troposphere
• User Clock Bias
– The satellite has 4 atomic clock, very accurate and its errors are calculated and corrected
regularly & applied.
– The receiver has ordinary quartz clock , less accurate , as fitting atomic clocks on all
ships would be very expensive.
– The receiver clock is not accurate and not corrected; therefore a constant unknown
receiver clock error (user clock offset) is included in range calculation
– This user clock bias represents the difference between receiver’s time and GPS time
• The range thus obtained containing the user clock offset is called Pseudo range
• True Range = Pseudo Range +/-User Clock Error Range
• Since it is difficult to measure this error, it is done away with the use of four
satellite ranging, thereby eliminating any error due to the user clock bias
 GPS Signals
• The GPS signal consists of s pseudo random code,
ephemeris and almanac data
– The Pseudo random code identifies the
Satellite(each satellite have their own unique
code)
– Ephemeris data is constantly transmitted by each
satellite and contains information such as status
of satellite, current date and time
– The almanac data tells the GPS receiver where
each satellite should be at any time through out
the day
 GPS Signals
• Signals driven by an atomic clock
– Fundamental Frequency at 10.23 MHz
• SVs transmit modulated codes on two microwave
carrier (carry information) signals(sine waves):
– L1 (1575.42 MHz): carries navigation message;
SPS code (SPS: standard positioning service)
– L2 (1227.60 MHz): measures ionospheric delay
(PPS: precise positioning service)
3 binary codes shift L1 and/or L2 carrier phases
• Each SVs transmit unique P & C/A Code and
Navigation Message encoded on carrier L1 & L2 by
modulation
 GPS Signals
• C/A code (Clear Access / Coarse Acquisition):
1.023 MHz ( =300 m ), 10.23/10
– modulates L1 carrier- phase modulation
– repeating 1 MHz pseudo random noise (PRN) code
– pseudo-random because repeats every 1023 bits or
– every millisecond…each SV has its own C/A code
– basis for civilian SPS (standard position service)
– Also helps military receivers to access the more accurate
P code
 GPS Signals
• C/A code (contd)
– Is made up of a sequence of 0s & 1s called chip
– Having a frequency of 1.023Mbits/sec
– Distance measurement approx 293 mtrs
– The duration of each chip is 1µs and entire sequence is
in one millisecond
– The code sequence of 1023 such chips arranged in
psuedo random order known to the receiver and
repeated every one millisecond
 GPS Signals
• P-code (Protected / Precise): 10.23 MHz ( = 30 m ) at
fundamental frequency )
– modulates both L1 and L2
– The duration of each chip is 0.1µs amount to 29.3mtr
– The full code length is 267 days
– Each satellite is allocated only a 7days piece of the code
– During this time there is no repetition of the code
– Extremely long code length make difficult to lock on to P code
– Therefore every 6 sec SV transmits the time elapsed since the P code
started
– This enables receiver to find the appropriate part of the P code quickly
– Above is achieved by initially locking on to C/A code and then transfering
to the P code using Hand Over Word(HOW) contained in 30 second
navigation message
– basis for military PPS (precise positioning service)
– AS (anti-spoofing) encrypts P-code into Y-code
– (need classified module for receiver)
 GPS Signals
• navigation message(30 second)
– Describes system time, “Broadcast” orbits, satellite clock
corrections, almanacs, ionospheric information, etc.),
– Each SV transmits a nav msg of 30 seconds duration in form of 50
bps data frame modulated on both L1 and L2
– This data is different for each SV
– This data is supplied to SV by Master Control Station & is divided
into five sub-frames
– Each sub frame commences with telemetry word(TLM) containing satellite status ,
followed by hand over word(HOW) data for acquiring P code from C/A code
• The 1st sub-frame contains data relating to satellite clock correction
• The 2nd & 3rd sub-frames contain the satellite ephemeris defining the
position of the satellite
• The 4th sub-frame passes alpha numeric data to the user and will be only
used when upload station has a need to pass specific message
• The 5th sub-frame gives the almanac of all other SVs which include data on
SVs health and identity codes thus allowing user for selecting optimum
choice of satellite for position fixing
GPS receiver produces replicas of C/A and/or P (Y) code
receiver produces C/A code sequence for specific SV
C/A code generator repeats same 1023 chip
PRN code sequence every millisecond
PRN codes defined for
32 satellite ID numbers

modern receivers usually store complete set

of precomputed C/A code chips in memory
receiver slides replica of code in time until
finds correlation with SV signal

(codes are series of digital numbers)

if receiver applies different PRN code to SV signal
…no correlation

when receiver uses same code as SV and codes begin to align

…some signal power detected
when receiver and SV codes align completely
…full signal power detected

usually a late version of code is compared with early version

to insure that correlation peak is tracked
receiver PRN code start position at time of full correlation
is time of arrival of the SV PRN at receiver
the time of arrival is a measure of range to SV
offset by amount to which receiver clock is offset from GPS time
…the time of arrival is pseudo-range
position of receiver is where pseudo-ranges from set of SVs intersect

• position determined from multiple pseudo-range measurements

from a single measurement epoch (i.e. time)
• psuedo-range measurements used together with SV position
estimates based on precise orbital elements
(ephemeris data) sent by each SV

GPS navigation data

from
navigation message
each SV sends amount to which GPS time is offset from
UTC (universal time) time…
correction used by receiver to set UTC to within 100 nanoseconds
step 3: getting perfect timing

electromagnetic energy travels at 186,000 miles per second

…an error of 1/100th second leads to error of 1,860 miles

how do we know that receiver and satellite are on same time?

satellites have atomic clocks (4 of them for redundancy)

…at $100,000 apiece, they are not in receivers!
receivers have “ordinary” clocks
(otherwise receivers would cost > $100K)
…can get around this by having an “extra” measurement
…hence 4 satellites are necessary

three perfect measurements will lead to unique, correct solution

….four imperfect ones also will lead to appropriate solution
illustrate this in 2D…

instead of referring to satellite pseudo-range in distance,

…we will use time units

two satellites: first at distance of 4 seconds

second at distance of 6 seconds

this is if clocks
were correct…

location of receiver is X
what if they weren’t correct?
what if receiver wasn’t perfect? “real” time
…receiver is off by 1 second

XX

XX position is wrong;
caused by wrong time
measurements
wrong time
how do we know that it is wrong?
…measurement from third satellite (fourth in 3D)

3rd satellite at 3 seconds

all 3 intersect
at X…
if time is correct

if time is not correct…

add our one second error to the third receiver…
…circle from 3rd SV cannot intersect where other 2 do

purple dots are

intersections of
2 SVs

XX

define area of solutions

…receivers calculate best solution
(add or subtract time from each SV)
position determined from multiple pseudo-range measurements
4 satellites…3 (X, Y, Z) dimensions and time
when clock offsets are determined, the receiver position is known
this leads us to why 4 GPS satellites are necessary and to…
finally…
step 4: knowing where a satellite is in space

• Air Force injected satellites into known orbits

• orbits known in advance and programmed into receivers
• satellites constantly monitored by DoD
…identify errors
(ephemeris errors)
in orbits
…usually minor
• corrections relayed
back to satellite
“data message”
about their “health”
step 5: identifying errors
ionosphere: electrically charged particles 80-120 miles up;
affects speed of electromagnetic energy
…amount of affect depends on frequency
…look at differences in L1 and L2
(need “dual-frequency” receivers to correct)
 Sources of Signal Interference

Earth’s Atmosphere

Solid Structures

Metal Electro-magnetic Fields

 GPS Error Sources
• Ionospheric & tropospheric delay&/(refraction)
– The radio waves from SV when passing the different layers of ionospere &
troposphere, velocity varies which affects time difference measurement, & the
fix will not be accurate
– for dual frequency receivers, the use of (P1, P2) or (L1, L2) virtually eliminates
ionospheric refraction (also used for ionospheric delay
determination/monitoring)- correction is calculated and compensated within
the receiver
– Hence accuracy of dual frequency receiver is better than that of single
frequency receiver
– For satellite with low elevation, the refraction will be more& hence more error,
hence receivers designed not to select satellites whose elevation is less that
9.5degrees
– For single frequency receivers, ionospheric refraction errors reduced in
differential (relative) positioning (e.g. DGPS) for baselines up to 100 km
• Geometric dilution of precision
– Explained separately
 GPS Error Sources
• Multipath
– This error is caused by satellite signals arriving at the ships antenna both
directly and indirectly by reflection from some other objects
– This two signals are received simultaneously which will cause distortion of
signal form which range measurement is obtained
– Siting off the antenna at a suitable place can minimize the error
• Orbital error (deviation of satellite from predicted path)
– The satellite are monitored and their path are predicted by ground base
segment
– However between two consecutive monitoring of the same satellite, there may
be minor drifts from their predicted paths resulting in small position inaccuracy
• Noise: Combined effect of receiver noise and PRN noise
• Blunders: human error in control segment user mistakes (e.g.
incorrect geodetic datum)more on this in a minute receiver errors
 GPS Error Sources
• BIAS Errors
– User Clock error(user clock bias)
• If the user clock is not perfectly synchronised with the
satellite’s clock, the range measurement will not be accurate,
the range measurement along with clock error is known as
pseudo range
– This error can be eliminated within the receiver by
obtaining the pseudo range from four satellites and is done
automatically within the receiver
– Satellite Clock error (satellite clock bias)
• This error is caused due to the error in the satellite’s clock wrt
GPS time
• This is monitored by the ground base segments and any error
in the satellite clock, forms a part of the 30 seconds
navigational message
 GPS Error Sources
• DOA(GPS Denial of Accuracy) (Deliberate errors)
– Selective Availability (SA): intentional degradation of accuracy
• The Defense Department dithered the satellite time message, reducing position accuracy to
some GPS users. Dither: satellite clock was dithered; same effect as a satellite clock error;
• S/A was designed to prevent America’s enemies from using GPS against us and our allies.
• In May 2001 the Pentagon reduced S/A to zero meters error.
• S/A could be reactivated at any time by the Pentagon.
• Increased navigation errors (based on broadcast orbits/clocks) from several meters to more
than 30 m !
• Epsilon: navigation message contained intentional orbit errors; apparently not used;
• Switched off permanently on May 2, 2000 WK 1060, Day of Year 123) at 04:00UT as directed
by the President of the US.
– Anti-Spoofing (AS): denial of precise P-code
• Encryption of the more precise P-code on L1 and L2 (a key available only to authorized users)
• Modern GPS receivers can still perform precise code (< .3m)and phase (<2mm) measurements
on L1 and L2
• Somewhat increased noise level for code measurements and for L2 carrier phase
measurements even for modern GPS receivers.
– GPS Clock Rollover
• GPS System Time rolled over at midnight 21-22 August 1999, 132 days before the Year 2000
• On 22 August 1999, unless repaired, many GPS receivers claimed that it is 6 January 1980
Receiver Errors are Cumulative!

System and other flaws = < 9 meters

User error = +- 1 km
effects of noise, bias, and blunder
 Sources of GPS Error
• Standard Positioning Service (SPS ): Civilian Users
• Source Amount of Error
 Satellite clocks: 1.5 to 3.6 meters
 Orbital errors: < 1 meter
 Ionosphere: 5.0 to 7.0 meters
 Troposphere: 0.5 to 0.7 meters
 Receiver noise: 0.3 to 1.5 meters
 Multipath: 0.6 to 1.2 meters
 Selective Availability (see notes)
 User error: Up to a kilometer or more
• Errors are cumulative and increased by PDOP.
 GDOP(Geometric Dilution of Precision)
• GDOP
– The angle of cut between the position lines obtained by pseudo-ranging
is important (same way as in fix ploting using visual or radar position
lines)
– This depends on geometry of the satellite and is known as GDOP-
geometric dilution of precision; which in turn governs the quality of the
position obtained .
– Wider the angular separations between the satellites, more accurate is
the fix, preferably 3 SVs 120 degrees apart and one right on top .
– The receiver continuously keeps calculating the GDOP in order to select
the most suitable SV.
– The GDOP value is indicated on the display .
– The lower the GDOP value, higher the accuracy of the fix,
– It’s usually up to the GPS receiver to pick satellites which provide the
best position triangulation.
• SVs with elevation less that 9.5 degrees are not suitable , due high
refraction at low elevation due to troposphere Satellite Clock error
(satellite clock bias)
 GDOP(Geometric Dilution of Precision)
• GDOP is divided into following categories
• PDOP – Positional Dilution of Precision – The spatial geometrical quality
of the positional solution-used for 3dimensional fix(lat, long &alt.).
• HDOP – Horizontal Dilution of Precision – Measure of the quality of the
horizontal position. Used for 2 dimensional fix(lat & long). Used in
marine GPS recievers
• VDOP – Vertical Dilution of Precision – Measure of the quality of the
vertical position
• TDOP – Time Dilution of Precision – Measure of time accuracy.
• The receiver on board Ship is designed to calculate the value of HDOP and
display it to the user
• If the geometry of the satellites provide good HDOP value , it is displayed in
the receiver as ‘1’, and if it is not good then displayed as ‘10’
• It is recommended an appropriate maximum HDOP value is selected at
which GPS receiver should give an alarm and change to dead reckoning(DR)
mode
 DOP
DOP Rating Description
1 Ideal Highest possible. Required for surveys requiring the
highest precision.
2–3 Excellent Positional measurements are sufficient for all but the
most stringent surveys.
4–6 Good Minimum level appropriated for business decisions.
7–8 Moderate Sufficient for calculations, but a more open sky view
is recommended.
9-20 Fair Positional information should only be used to indicate
rough locations.
20 – Poor Measurements are +- 150 feet and are probably
50 useless.

Values below 2 will produce acceptable results for most surveys. Values over
three should not be used.

70
 Ideal Satellite Geometry
N

W E

S
Good Satellite Geometry
Good Satellite Geometry
 Poor Satellite Geometry
N

W E

S
Poor Satellite Geometry
Poor Satellite Geometry
user community…
primary application is GPS navigation

X, Y, Z (position) and time from 4 satellites to calculate position

 GPS Datum
• The default datum for GPS is WGS84
• However, the navigational charts on which the GPS position
is plotted may be based on different datum
• It is important to
– Check the datum on the chart and if different from WGS84, apply
the correction stated on the chart in the note “Positions”, usually
given under the chart title
– Some GPS receivers have an option to change the datum within
the receiver.
• This is given in the form of a list of datums from which the user can select
the one that matches the chart.
• Reference should be made to the annual summary of Admiralty notice to
mariners, which states the parameters used for the given datum in the GPS
receiver may be different from those used by the Admiralty for developing
charts.
• These may cause a difference in position even if the datum given on the
chart is selected in the GPS receiver.
• It is recommended to use WGS84 in the GPS and manually apply any
corrections
GPS determines locations in Earth centered, Earth fixed (ECEF)
need to convert to latitude, longitude, and height above ellipsoid
need to use datum…descriptions of Earth’s surface
depends on projections
flat Earth for short distances
ellipsoidal models for whole Earth

GPS uses WGS-84 (ellipsoid)

geoid: surface resulted from gravity alone
other reference ellipsoids exist
can convert from one datum to another (standard equations)
note position shifts…important to be consistent
 Differential GPS
• The Differential GPS (DGPS), is the name given to a
technique that references a GPS receiver at a
known shore based position to determine the error
in the signals received from each satellite within its
view
• The corrections to these errors are then transmitted
to DGPS receivers through DGPS beacons so that
when the same satellites are used, the appropriate
correction is applied.
• DGPS accuracies of 1-10 metres are possible
 Differential GPS
• Limitations of DGPS are:
– The DGPS receiver must be within the range of the DGPS
beacon. For example, around the UK coast the DGPS
beacons provide coverage of about 50nm from the coast
– A GPS receiver whose position is to be corrected through
corrections sent from the beacon must use the same
satellites
– Corrections are sent through DGPS are for shore-based
referencing receivers and not for shipboard receivers.
Hence, a small error may still be present.
 Differential GPS
• It is important to note that
– GPS receivers that are ‘DGPS ready’ are available , which
means that a separate receiver would not need to be
installed
– Since SA has been switched off, the accuracy of GPS
receiver has improved. Therefore, the DGPS may not
prove to be as useful as it once was ( when the GPS
position was deliberately down graded)
differential GPS: improves accuracy
correct bias errors at one location using
measured bias errors at known position (base station)
…requires software in reference receiver that can track
all SVs in view and form individual pseudo-range
corrections for each
 Real Time Differential GPS

x+5, y-3
x+30, y+60

x-5, y+3

Receiver DGPS Receiver

DGPS Site
DGPS correction = x+(30-5) and True coordinates = x+0,
y+(60+3) y+0

True coordinates = x+25, y+63 Correction = x-5, y+3

 NDGPS Ground Stations
National Differential Global Positioning System

Yellow areas show overlap between NDGPS stations. Green areas are little to no coverage.
Topography may also limit some areas of coverage depicted here.
 NDGPS Ground Stations
National Differential Global Positioning System

Yellow areas show overlap between NDGPS stations. Green areas are little to no coverage.
Topography may also limit some areas of coverage depicted here.
 Wide Area DGPS(WA-DGPS)
• There are many systems that are based on the same principles as DGPS ,
but they use satellites to transmit correction messages instead of
beacons(as used in DGPS)
• Following such systems are:
– WAAS : Wide Area Augmentation System in North America
– EGNOS : European Geostationary Navigation Overlay System
– MSAS : Multifunctional Transport Satellite-Based Augmentation System in
Japan
– SNAS : Satellite Navigation Augmentation System in China
– GRAS : Ground-Based Regional Augmentation System in Australia
• These above systems are known as Wide Area DGPS(WA-DGPS) or Satellite-
Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS)
• The benefits of the use of any WA-DGPS include :
• Improved accuracy of positions
• Added confidence due to knowledge of the satellite health status and the
error for each satellites own data
• Increased availability through ensuring that even if some satellites are not
available, the position obtained with minimum available satellites is reliable
• They all operate on same principles( as given ahead regarding WAAS)
 Wide Area Augmentation System(WAAS)

• The WAAS is a GPS-based navigation system of

satellites and ground stations to provide GPS signal
corrections for better position accuracy
• A GPS receiver that is WAAS capable can give
positional accuracy of 1-2mtrs (horizontal) & 1-
3mtrs(vertical), with 95% probability
• The system, originally designed and intended for
use in USA, is now being used in other areas as well
• While the principle of operating WAAS is similar to
DGPS, there are certain differences
 Wide Area Augmentation System(WAAS)
• The basic operation of WAAS utilises 25 ground reference station(same as
DGPS) with known positions
• These reference stations monitor the accuracy of GPS data and calculate the
error for satellite data
• Unlike the DGPS where the correction message is transmitted directly
through DGPS beacons, the WAAS corrections are transmitted through two
geostationary satellites on 1575.47MHz frequency
• This means that any user on land or at sea , within view of these satellites
can receive the correction message, provided the GPS receiver is WAAS
enabled.
• WAAS position is only accurate if the same satellites are used by the
receiver for which the corrections are transmitted
• The geostationary satellites are located over equator, if the view of the
satellite is blocked, the receiver will not be able to receive the WAAS
correction message
• Therefore WAAS should be used by mariners with caution
• The other systems, such as EGNOS are designed on the same principle and
standards, therefore the receivers will be interchangeable, i.e. a WAAS
receiver will be able to operate on EGNOS or vice versa
 Wide Area Augmentation System
Geostationary WAAS GPS Constellation
satellites

WAAS Control
Station (East
WAAS Control Coast)
Station (West Coast)
Local Area System (LAAS)
 How good is WAAS?
With Selective Availability set to
zero, and under ideal conditions,
a GPS receiver without WAAS
can achieve fifteen meter +-15 meters
accuracy most of the time.*

+-
3 meters

Under ideal conditions a WAAS

equipped GPS receiver can
achieve three meter accuracy
95% of the time.*

* Precision depends on good satellite geometry, open sky view, and no user induced
errors.
 Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite
System (GLONASS)
• Similar to GPS system , developed by the Russian Federation(ex Soviet Union) Space Forces
• The fully operational system consists of 24 satellites located in 3 orbital planes, with spare satellites
• 2 type signals
– Standard Precision (SP)Signal – containing coarse acquisition code for civilian use
– High Precision (HP) Signal- containing Precise code for military use
• Standard Precision(SP) Signal
– transmitted on L band frequency called L1=1602MHz + n 0.5625MHz,
• where ‘n’ is the frequency channel number(n=0,1,2…).
– The use of channel numbers by employing multiple ‘n’ ensures that each satellite transmits a signal on
its dedicated frequency which is different from other nearby satellites
– This technique is used in GLOSNASS and is known as ‘Frequency Division Multiple Access(FDMA)
technique’.
– The system however, allows the use of the same frequency on satellites that are designed to be out of the
receiver’s view
– This means that no two satellites transmitting on the same frequency can be in any receivers view at the
same time
– SP signals available to users with an accuracy of:
• 57-70 mtrs horizontally, .ie latitude and longitude (99.7% probability)
• Less than 70mtrs vertically, ie height (99.7% probability)
• Speed accuracy of about 15cm/s(99.7% probability)
• Time accuracy within 1micro second(99.7% probability)
 Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS)
• High Precision(HP) Signal:
– HP signals are transmitted on a frequency called L2,
• based on L-band frequency of 1246MHz + n0.4375 MHz
– The use of FDMA technique is also used on the HP signal in the same way as in SP signal
– The HP signal -only available to Russian military use providing accuracy of within 10-20 mtrs range
• The GLONASS system is made up of
• The space segment
– consist of 24 satellite in 3 orbital planes at an inclination of 64.8degree and are 120 degree apart.
– Each orbit contains 8 satellites that are 45 degrees apart.
– The height of the orbit-19,100Km, orbit time 11hr 15min.
– The satellites are so located that at any time 5 satellites are in view of the user, round the clock
global coverage
• The control segment
– consists of the System Control Centre
– and the network of the Command and Tracking Stations spread out in the Russian Federation,
– providing monitoring of satellite status, health and update corrections through navigational
messages.
– Operation similar to GPS system except that Command & Tracking Stations transmit navigational
messages to satellites instead of the System Control Centre
• The user segment
– consists of receivers that calculate position, speed and time based on signals received from
satellites
 Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS)

• GLONASS user receiver ,uses the same method of

pseudo –ranging of position fixing as used in GPS
– 2D position-giving lat& long- requires 3 satellite
– 3D position-giving lat,long and alt- requires 4 satellites
• The GLONASS system
– has never been fully operational due to economic reasons.
– Only once in 1996- did GLONASS have full constilation of 24
satellites,
– but in 2004 there were only 11 satellites in operation.
– Developments in new satellite designs, GLONASS-M &
GLONASS-K, more modern and longer life span
– With new launches ,estimated to be fully operational by the
end of 2010
• GLONASS constellation status, 05.02.2014
• Total satellites in constellation 28 SC
• Operational 24 SC
• In commissioning phase -
• In maintenance -
• Spares 3 SC
• In flight tests phase 1 SC
 • GLONASS Constellation Status at 05.02.2014 based on both the almanac analysis and navigation messages received at 18:00
05.02.14 (UTC) in IAC PNT TsNIImash
• Orb. slot Orb. pl. RF chnl # GC Launched Operation begins Operation ends
Life-time (months) Satellite health status Comments
• In almanac In
ephemeris (UTC)
• 1 1 01 730 14.12.09 30.01.10 49.8 + + 18:15
05.02.14 In operation
• 2 1 -4 747 26.04.13 04.07.13 9.4 + + 18:15
05.02.14 In operation
• 3 1 05 744 04.11.11 08.12.11 27.1 + + 16:59
05.02.14 In operation
• 4 1 06 742 02.10.11 25.10.11 28.2 + + 16:59
05.02.14 In operation
• 5 1 01 734 14.12.09 10.01.10 49.8 + + 16:59
05.02.14 In operation

• + 18:15 05.02.14 In operation

• 22 3 -3 731 02.03.10 28.03.10 47.2 + + 16:59
05.02.14 In operation
• 23 3 03 732 02.03.10 28.03.10 47.2 + + 16:59
05.02.14 In operation
• 24 3 02 735 02.03.10 28.03.10 47.2 + + 16:59
05.02.14 In operation

• 21 3 -5 701 26.02.11 35.3

Flight Tests
• 14 2 722 25.12.07 25.01.08 12.10.11 73.4
Spares
• 17 3 714 25.12.05 31.08.06 19.12.11 97.4
Spares
• 8 1 712 26.12.04 07.10.05 22.11.12 109.4
Spares
 European Global Navigation
Satellite System (GALILEO)
• GALILEO is the name given to the satellite positioning system being developed in
Europe by the European Space Agency(ESA), similar to GPS & GLONASS systems
• Joint venture of 8 European companies known as the Galileo Operation
Company(GOC) in which Inmarsat Global Limited has the overall responsibility for
management of the project
• Major difference-under civil control (others primary intention was military use,
later allowed for civilian use)
• Best feature- intended to be interoperable with GPS & GLONASS receivers
• Drawback of GPS-if a SV develops a fault or there is an error in the signal
transmitted, the used is not informed and may continue to use the same satellite
without realising it.
• GALILEO will overcome this weakness by developing a built-in ‘integrity message’
to inform user of any errors in the satellite signal.
• Expected to be fully operational by 2013
• Once in full operation, it is designed to provide following services:
– The Open Service(OS)
– The Safety of Life Service(SoL)
– The Commercial Service(CS)
– The Public Regulated Service(PRS)
– The Search and Rescue Service(SAR)
 European Global Navigation Satellite System (GALILEO)
• The Open Service(OS)
– is designed to provide position, speed, course and time to the user.
– allows a correction for errors caused by the ionosphere delays by using
two frequencies
– and hence has improved performance
• The Safety of Life Service(SoL)
– is designed for maritime , aviation and train services .
– In order to ensure credibility of the satellite signals, the design includes
the use of digital signatures to authenticate the source of correct
GALILEO satellite signals.
– If the signal cannot be authenticated, the user can exercise caution
where safety of life is based on the positional information obtained from
GALILEO
• The Commercial Service(CS)
– is designed for commercial use of GALILEO by using two additional
signals so that the data can be received at a higher rate ( or speed).
– The signals used in this service will be the same as those used in the
open service but two additional encrypted signals will be used to
increase accuracy and as result the level of service
 European Global Navigation Satellite System (GALILEO)
• The Public Regulated Service(PRS)
– is designed for organizations such as those concerned with national security,
law enforcement or border security.
– The main concern for these organizations is the use of malicious signals that
may interfere with the transmitted signals.
– Therefore the signals provided under this service will have a higher level of
integrity, authenticity and protection compared to the above three services.
– In order to achieve this service, GALILEO will use separate frequencies to
ensure availability even when the OS , SoL , & CS are not available.
– This service would only be available to authorized states, these are approved
by the members of EU.
• The Search and Rescue Service(SAR)
– is designed to provide assistance to personnel, ships or aircraft in distress in
conjunction with the COSPAS-SARSAT Search and Rescue (SAR) system.
– The distress transmission from a COSPAS-SARSAT EPIRB will trigger a global
broadcast to ensure that SAR is initiated.
– The significant feature of this service is that the beacon transmitting the
distress alert will receive a ‘return link’ from the SAR operator to ensure a false
alert is not processed and SAR initiated
 European Global Navigation Satellite System (GALILEO)
• Space Segment :
– consists of 30 satellites spread out in three planes
– so that each plane contains 8 satellites and 1 additional
active satellite.
– These are in 3 planes inclined 56 degrees to the equatorial
plane.
– When fully operational, there will be one more spare
satellite in each plane making a total of 10 satellites in any
one orbit.
– However one additional active satellite has been designed
to be moved in same orbit to take the place of any faulty
satellite immediately.
– The altitude of GALILEO satellites is 12,750 nm (23,616km).
• GALILEO satellites are designed to transmit 10
navigation signals in three frequency bands
 European Global Navigation Satellite System (GALILEO)
Control Segment
• Quite different from GPS & GLONASS system, consists of
– Two main control centres called GALILEO Control Centres (GCC)
• located within Europe(Germany, Italy & a centre in Spain to act as backup).
• The functions of GCC
– is to Monitor and control the entire constellation of satellites and ground facilities
– Process the ephemeris data of the satellites received from GALILEO Uplink Station(GUS)
– Process and control the encryption of signals
– GALILEO Sensor Stations(GSS)
• located at different places around the globe
• to collect satellite ephemeris and environmental data
– which is passed to GCC for processing
– GUS
• combines ‘Telemetry” , Telecommand and ‘Tracking Sation(TT&C)’ and ‘Mission Uplink
Station(MUS)’.
• These are used to measure and upload the navigation messages to satellite
– to correct for ephemeris and time errors
– MUS
• used to maintain a link of the ground stations with satellites
– Global Area Network
• this network is used to establish and maintain contact via satellites to all other control
and space segments
 European Global Navigation Satellite System (GALILEO)
• User Segment
– Can be a basic receiver (mini terminals)
• giving lat & long along with accurate time to the user.
– Alternatively, it can include sophisticated equipment
used for Commercial Service(CS) as well as for Public
Regulated Service(PRS),
• to decrypt the data and receive additional information.
– However, the basic receiver will be developed for public
use
• and may be incorporated into mobile phones to provide
location facilities
– Additionally there will be some receivers that
interoperable with GPS
European Global Navigation Satellite
System (GALILEO)
can also use carrier phase (L1; L2)
two receivers must be < 30 kms from one another
(ionospheric delay must be less than one wavelength);
requires special software
…real-time kinematic (RTK) processing
old slide (1994): currently, dual-phase geodetic receivers ~$10K
 Using GPS Receivers for
Positioning and Navigation
 GPS Navigation Terminology
Active GOTO
Waypoint

N (0000)

Desired Track
(DTK) (xº)

(CMG) (xº) N (00)

Course Made Good (CMG) Tracking (TRK) (xº)

Active From
Present
Waypoint
Location
 GPS Navigation: On the Ground

Active GOTO
Waypoint
N
Bearing = 780
COG = 3500 XTE
Bearing = 650 = 1/3 mi.
COG = 50 XTE =
1/2 mi.
Bearing = 400
COG = 1040 XTE
= 1/4 mi.

Course Over Ground (COG) =

Location Where GOTO Bearing =
Was Executed Cross Track Error (XTE) =
 Position Fix
 A position is based on real-time satellite tracking.
 It’s defined by a set of coordinates.
 It has no name.
 A position represents only an approximation of the
receiver’s true location.
 A position is not static. It changes constantly as the GPS
receiver moves (or wanders due to random errors).
 A receiver must be in 2D or 3D mode (at least 3 or 4
satellites acquired) in order to provide a position fix.
 3D mode dramatically improves position accuracy.
 Waypoint
 A waypoint is based on coordinates entered into a
GPS receiver’s memory.
 It can be either a saved position fix, or user entered
coordinates.
 It can be created for any remote point on earth.
 It must have a receiver designated code or number,
or a user supplied name.
 Once entered and saved, a waypoint remains
unchanged in the receiver’s memory until edited or
deleted.
 Planning a Navigation Route

= Waypoint
Start
How A Receiver Sees Your Route
GPS Waypoint Circle of Error

X
 Future Developments
• GPS Modernization
– C/A on L2, improve codeless, cross correclation receiver processing
– 3rd frequency, L5 at 1176.45 MHz with full access to frequencies available for
civilian use
– improved satellite designs, longer life, Hydrogen Maser frequency standards
– Spectrum protection for GPS signals remains an issue, conflict with satellite
communications interests
– Need space-to-space allocation for GPS use

• Full and guaranteed access (in peace time) to civilian use

– guaranteed by the Presidential Decision Directive (PDD), March 1996:
• SA switched off on May 2, 2000, GPS WK 1060, 123 doy at 04:00UT
• no SA should allow cm interpolation of the IGS clock solutions and
instantaneous cm positioning/navigation at any instant at any time with
no base (DGPS) stations required
• with no SA most DGPS’ should become obsolete and redundant
 Ground Segment
The ground segment has one master control, one alternative master control
station, 12 command and control antennas and 16 monitoring sites.

126
 GPS Errors
• Satellite geometry
• Satellite orbits
• Multipath
• Atmospheric effects
• Clock

127
 Error-Satellite Geometry
• Describes the position of the satellites with each other.
• The best geometry, and least error, occurs when the
satellites are equally distributed.
• Satellite geometry error occurs when the satellites are
concentrated in on quadrant or in a line.
• The Positional Dilution of Precision (PDOP) is an
indication of the quality of the 3D coordinate satellite
geometry.
– General surveys PDOP’s should be less than 3.
• Satellite geometry error is not measureable, it tends to
enhance other errors.

128
 Error-Orbits
• Even though the satellites are positioned in very
precise orbits, slight shifts are possible do to the
gravitational influences of the sun and moon.
• Orbit errors can be as high as 2 meters.

129
 Error-Multipath
• Multipath errors are caused by satellite signals
reflecting off of objects.
• Increase chance of occurrence when around
tall buildings.

130
 Error-Atmospheric
• Radio signals travel at the speed of light in space, but are
slowed down by the atmosphere.
• The majority of this effect can be eliminated by the receiver.
– Lower frequency signals are slowed down more that high
frequencies.
– The receiver can determine the difference in the arrival time of
high and low frequency signals and calculate a correction.

131
 Error-Clock
• In spite of the synchronization of the satellite and receiver
clocks, and small amount of inaccuracy in timing remains.
• This can result in errors up to 1 meter.
• To keep clock errors to 1 meter or less, the time error must be
be limited to 20-30 nanoseconds.

132
 Using GPS

133
 Availability
• Because GPS satellites are not stationary above one point of the
earth, like telecommunication satellites, the number of
satellites available at any one time is not constant.
• The satellite availability should be checked before scheduling a
GPS survey. Especially when high precision is required and /or
you know that some stations may be partially blocked.
• One site is: http://www.calsky.com/cs.cgi

134
 Example of Satellite
Availability

135
 Static Time
• Because the receiver continuously calculates its position,
increasing the time it is stationary improves the precision.
• Static time can be divided into three categories.
– Static
– Fast static
– Kinematic

136
 Static Surveys
• The recommended time is related to the distances
being surveyed.
– Static times of 30 minutes to 2 hours are
recommended for distances of 1 to 20 miles.
• To qualify for a static survey, both receivers must
observe a minimum of the same four satellites for
the duration of the time.
• Data is post processed.
• Static surveys have the highest precision and can be
used for any surveys.

137
 Fast Static
• Uses the same procedures as static surveys, just
shorter observation times.
– Five (5) to 10 minutes are usually sufficient for surveys
that do not require the highest level of precision.

138
 RTK

• Requires two receivers recording observations

simultaneously.
• RTK requires receivers that can use the dual
frequency L1/L2 observations.
• Can lock onto satellites while on the move.
• Must have radio or other link to transfer data
and calculate error in real time.
• Accuracy can be as good as 0.02 to 0.05 feet,
0.24 inches to 0.6 inches.
139
 Space Segment--Satellite Signals
• Because the GPS receiver calculates its
location by trilateration, the task of the
receiver is to determine its distance from
multiple satellites.
• The GPS system uses two types of signals to
calculate distance.
– Code-phase ranging
– Carrier-phase ranging
 Space Segment--Satellite Signals--
Code-Phasing Ranging

• Each satellite has a unique signal.

• It continuously broadcasts its signal and also
sends out a time stamp every time it starts.
• The receiver has a copy of each satellite signal
and determines the distance by recording the
time between when the satellite says it starts its
signal and when the signal reaches the receiver.
 Space Segment--Satellite Signals-
-Code-Phasing Ranging – cont.

• Distance is calculated using the velocity equation.

Distance
Velocity =
Time

• Rearranging the equation for distance:




Distance = Velocity x Time

• If the system knows the velocity of a signal and the time it takes
for the signal to travel from the sender to the receiver, the
distance between the sender and the receiver can be
determined.
142
 Distance Example—Code Phase
Ranging
• The signals from the GPS satellites travel at the speed of
light--186,000 miles/second.
• How far apart are the sender and the receiver if the
signal travel time was 0.23 seconds?

Distance (ft) = Velocity (mi/sec) x Time (sec)

mi ft
= 186,000 x 5208 0.23 sec = 2,257,8400 ft
sec mi
• It should be clear that this system requires very accurate
measurement of time and synchronization of clocks.
• These time errors limit the precision of this system.

143
 Space Segment—Carrier-
Phase Ranging
• Surveying quality
receivers use the
underlying carrier
frequency.
• Easy to determine
number of cycles.

• The proportion of a partial cycle is difficult to determine.

• This is called phase ambiguity.
• Phase ambiguity error is resolved by comparing multiple signals from
multiple receivers.
• More precise system.
• GPS Clock Signals
– Two types of clock signals are transmitted
– C/A Code - Coarse/Acquisition Code available for civilian use on L1 provides 300 m
resolution
– P Code - Precise Code on L1 and L2 used by the military provides 3m resolution
– Spread Spectrum
• Spread Spectrum is used because
– resistance to jamming
– masks the transmissions
– resist multipath effects
– multiple access
• All 24 GPS satellites transmit on the same two frequencies BUT use a different ID
sequence
• GPS Signals
– The satellites transmit as part of their unique Spread Spectrum signal a clock or timing
signal
– The range or distance to the satellite is obtained by measuring how long it takes for the
transmitted signal to reach the receiver
– This is not the “true” range due to clock errors - what is obtained is know as the
“pseudo-range”
• GPS Position
– By knowing how far one is from three satellites one can ideally find their 3D coordinates
– To correct for clock errors one needs to receive four satellites
• GPS: How does it work?
– Typical receiver: one channel C/A code on L1
– During the “acquisition” time you are receiving the navigation
message also on L1
– The receiver then reads the timing information and computes the
“pseudo-ranges”
– The pseudo-ranges are then corrected
– Corrected ranges are used to compute the position
– This is a very complicated iterative nonlinear equation
• Navigation Message
– To compute your position one must know the position of the
satellite
– Navigation Message - transmitted on both L1 and L2 at 50 bits/s
for 30 s
– Navigation message consists of two parts:
• satellite almanac
• &clock bias
 Factors Influencing Position Accuracy
The number of satellites (channels) the receiver can track.
– The number of channels a receiver has is part of it’s design.
– The higher the number of channels---the greater the potential accuracy.
– The higher the number of channels---the greater the cost.
The number of satellites that are available at the time.
– Because of the way the satellites orbit, the same number are not available at all
times.
– When planning precise GPS measurements it is important to check for satellite
availability for the location and time of measurement.
– If a larger number of channels are required (6-10), and at the time of
measurement the number available was less than that, the data will be less
accurate.
• The number of different systems that the receiver can track.
– WAAS [Wide Area Augmentation System] FAA & DOT
– GLONASS [GLObal'naya NAvigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema] Russian

147
 Factors Influencing Position Accuracy--cont.
 The system errors that are occurring during the time the
receiver is operating.
– The GPS system has several errors that have the potential to
reduce the accuracy.
– To achieve high levels of precision, differential GPS must be
used.
• Differential GPS uses one unit at a known location and a
rover.
– The stationary unit compares its calculated GPS location with
the actual location and computes the error.
– The rover data is adjusted for the error.
• Real Time Kinematic (RTK)
• Post processing
148
sites have co-located:
• VLBI (very long baseline interferometry);
• lunar laser-ranging (from instrument left by Apollo astronauts)
…primarily for length of day considerations
• satellite laser-ranging