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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Lesson 5
Antenna Engineering

Antenna 1 Antenna 2
Transmission Electromagnetic Transmission
Line Field Line
RF RF
Power Power
current current Available

0 (N)
0
-10 Spectrum Analyzer
-20 -10
-30 db
270 90 -20
(W) (E)

-30
f1 f2
180 (S)

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Lesson 5 Objectives
 To introduce two basic antenna types which are the
building blocks of more complex antenna systems
 To introduce basic antenna concepts such as radiation
patterns, bandwidth, return loss, gain, ERP, EIRP
 To understand the basic theory and techniques used to
build useful antenna arrays for cellular service, and the
resulting classes of antennas with their characteristics
 To explore available commercial antennas for cellular
service, noting their important characteristics
 To understand the effects of antenna characteristics on
cellular system RF performance
 To gain insight into antenna selection principles for
cellular systems

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Lesson 5 Outline
 Introduction: The Function of an Antenna
 Antenna Gain and Effective Radiated Power
 Basic Reference Antennas: Dipole and Isotropic
 Basic Array Theory
• pattern development methods
 Antenna Performance Characteristics
 Cellular Antenna Application Guidelines
• Selection criteria
• Electrical and Mechanical Beam Tilt
 Intermodulation Distortion: Generation and Control
 A Survey of Available Commercial Cellular antennas

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Introduction
The Function of an Antenna
Antenna 1 Antenna 2
Transmission Electromagnetic Transmission
Line Field Line
RF RF
Power
Power
current current
Available

An antenna is a passive device (an arrangement of electrical conductors)

which converts RF power into electromagnetic fields, or intercepts
electromagnetic fields and converts them into RF power.
 RF power causes current to flow in the antenna.
 The current causes an electromagnetic field to radiate through space.
 The electromagnetic field induces small currents in any other conductors it
passes. These currents are small, exact replicas of the original current in
the original antenna.
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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Antenna Polarization
Antenna 1
Vertically Antenna 2
Polarized Horizontally
Polarized
Transmission Electromagnetic Transmission
Line Field Line
RF RF
Power
Power
current Available
almost
no
current

Antenna 1
 The electromagnetic field is oriented by the direction of current flow
in the radiating antenna.
 To intercept significant energy, a receiving antenna should be
oriented parallel to the transmitting antenna.
A receiving antenna oriented at right angles to the transmitting
antenna will have very little current induced in it. This is referred to
as “cross-polarization”. Typical cross-polarization loss is 20 dB.
 Vertical polarization is the norm in mobile telephony.
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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Antenna Characteristics:
Directional Effects
A Dipole Antenna
Minimum
 Real-world physical antennas Radiation
radiate different amounts of off ends
energy in different directions.
 For example, in the preceding
sketch, the antennas were MAXIMUM MAXIMUM
“dipoles” 1/2 wavelength long. Radiation Radiation
• Virtually no radiation off either end
• Maximum radiation in “donut”
shape outward from the middle. Minimum
 The same pattern applies both Radiation
off ends
transmitting and receiving.

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Antenna Characteristics:
Gain
 An antenna is a passive device
• It can’t radiate more energy than is fed to it.
• It can’t recover more energy than it receives.
• However, it can concentrate energy into a specific direction and
appear to have “gain” when compared with an antenna that is
less directional.
 Example:
• 100 watt light bulb
• 1/2 watt battery flashlight
• Both can appear equally bright viewed from one special direction!

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Effective Radiated Power

 In the flashlight example, suppose the viewer is so far away he can
only see two bright lights and compare their relative brightness.
• Let’s tell him that the bottom light is 100 watts.
• Ask him what power level is coming from the top light.
• If they look equally bright to him, he’ll say “100 watts”!
 WE know only 1/2 watt of power is really leaving the flashlight.
However, the reflector of the flashlight concentrates power so that
to the distant viewer, it appears to be 100 watts. He hasn’t a clue.
• One way of describing this is to say the flashlight lens and reflector
give us a “gain” of 200 times (that’s 23 dB!), and the effective
radiated power of the flashlight is 100 watts in its main beam.

ERP = Actual Power Input x

Antenna Gain

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Reference Antennas and

Effective Radiated Power
Effective Radiated Power is always expressed
in relation to the radiation produced by a
reference antenna. Isotropic
 The flashlight example used a plain light bulb Antenna
as a reference - producing the same light in all
directions.
 The radio equivalent of a plain light bulb is
called an isotropic radiator. It radiates the
same in all directions. Unfortunately, it’s
virtually impossible to build such an antenna.
• Radiation compared to an isotropic radiator is Dipole Antenna
called EIRP, Effective Isotropic Radiated Power. Null

 The simplest, most common, physically

constructible reference antenna is a dipole.
• Radiation compared to a dipole is called ERP, Main
Lobe
Effective Radiated Power.
Null

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Reference Antennas,
ERP and EIRP
Dipole
Null

 ERP is by comparison to a Dipole

• This is the tradition in cellular, land mobile, Main
Lobe

HF communications, and FM/TV broadcasting Null

Isotropic
 EIRP is by comparison to an Isotropic Radiator
• This is the tradition in PCS at 1900 MHz., microwave,
satellite communications, and radar
 ERP values can be converted to EIRP and vice versa.
• For a given amount of power input, a dipole produces 2.16 db more
radiation than an isotropic radiator, due to the dipole’s slight
directionality. A third antenna compared against both dipole and
isotropic will have a bigger EIRP (vs. isotropic) than ERP (vs dipole).
The difference is 2.16 db, a power ratio of 1.64. Therefore,

ERP = EIRP - 2.16 dB and ERP = EIRP / 1.64

EIRP = ERP + 2.16 dB and EIRP = ERP x 1.64

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Radiation Patterns
Key Features and Terminology
Radiation patterns of antennas are Typical Example
usually plotted in polar form Horizontal Plane Pattern
 The Horizontal Plane Pattern Notice -3 dB points
shows the radiation as a function of 0 (N)
azimuth (i.e.,direction N-E-S-W) 0
10 db
points
 The Vertical Plane Pattern shows -10
the radiation as a function of -20
elevation (i.e., up, down, horizontal) Main
-30 db Lobe
 Antennas are often compared by 270 90
noting specific features on their (W) (E)
nulls or a Minor
patterns: minima Lobe
• -3 db (“HPBW”), -6 db, -10 db Front-to-back Ratio
points
• front-to-back ratio
• angles of nulls, minor lobes, etc. 180 (S)

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Two Basic Methods of Obtaining Gain

Quasi-Optical Techniques (reflection, focusing)
• Reflectors can be used to concentrate radiation
– technique works best at microwave
frequencies, where reflectors are small
• examples:
– corner reflector used at cellular or higher
frequencies
– parabolic reflector used at microwave
frequencies
– grid or single pipe reflector for cellular
Array Techniques (discrete elements)
• power is fed or coupled to multiple antenna
elements; each element radiates In Phase
• elements’ radiations in phase in some directions
• in other directions, different distances to distant
observer introduce different phase delay for each Out of
element, and create pattern lobes and nulls Phase

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Arrays
 Collinear Vertical Arrays
• essentially omnidirectional in
horizontal plane
• power gain approximately equal
to number of elements
• nulls exist in vertical pattern,
unless deliberately filled
 Arrays in Horizontal Plane
• directional in horizontal plane:
useful for sectorization RF
• Yagi Power
– one driven element,
parasitic coupling to others
• Log-Periodic
– all elements driven RF
– wide bandwidth Power
 All of these types of antennas
are used in Cellular
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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Collinear Vertical Arrays for Omni Use

The family of omni-directional
cellular antennas: Typical Collinear Arrays
 number of elements determines: Number of Power Gain, Angle
Elements Gain dB 
• physical size 1 1 0.00 n/a

• gain 2
3
2
3
3.01
4.77
26.57°
18.43°
• beamwidth 4
5
4
5
6.02
6.99
14.04°
11.31°
• first null angle 6
7
6
7
7.78
8.45
9.46°
8.13°
 models with many elements have 8
9
8
9
9.03
9.54
7.13°
6.34°
very narrow beamwidths 10 10 10.00 5.71°
11 11 10.41 5.19°
• require stable mounting, and 12 12 10.79 4.76°
careful alignment 13
14
13
14
11.14
11.46
4.40°
4.09°
• watch out: be sure nulls do not
fall in important coverage areas Vertical Plane Pattern
 Rod and grid reflectors are beamwidth

sometimes added for mild

directivity -3 db


Examples: DB803, PD10017, BCR-10O, Angle

of
Kathrein 740-198, 740-198 RFL2, RFL5 first
null

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Composite Arrays for Sectorized Use

Cutaway Vertical Plane Pattern
 Typical commercial sector View Up
antennas are vertical
combinations of dipoles,
yagis, or log-periodic elements
with reflector (panel or grid) Horizon
backing
• vertical plane pattern
is determined by number of Down
vertically-separated elements
– varies from 1 to 8,
affecting mainly gain and Horizontal Plane Pattern
N
vertical plane beamwidth
• horizontal plane pattern
is determined by:
– number of horizontally- W E
spaced elements
Examples:
– shape of reflectors
(is reflector DB833, DB834
S
folded?)
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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Return Loss and VSWR

Directional Antenna
Fwd
Coupler

RF
Power
Transmission
Line
Refl
A perfect antenna will absorb and radiate all the power fed to it.
 Real antennas absorb most of the power, but reflect a portion back down
the line.
 A Directional Coupler or Directional Wattmeter can be used to measure the
magnitude of the energy in both forward and reflected directions.
• A directional coupler’s sample ports give attenuated RF samples of the
power passing each direction through the coupler. Typical coupling loss
between the main line and the sample ports is 20 to 40 db.
 Antenna specs give maximum reflection over a specific frequency range.
 Reflection magnitude can be expressed in the forms VSWR, Return Loss,
or reflection coefficient.
• VSWR = Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Return Loss and VSWR

Forward Power, Reflected Power,
VSWR vs. Return Loss Return Loss, and VSWR can be
50
related by these equations and
40 the graph.
• Typical antenna VSWR
30
specifications are 1.5:1
20
maximum over a specified
band.
10 • VSWR 1.5 : 1
= 14 db return loss
0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 = 4.0% reflected power
VSWR

1+ Reflected Power
Forward Power
Return Reflected Power VSWR =
Loss, dB = 10 x Log10 ( Forward Power ) 1- Reflected Power
Forward Power

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Swept Return Loss Measurements

Directional Antenna  It’s a good idea to take swept
Fwd
Coupler
return loss measurements of a
new antenna at installation and to
Transmission
Line
recheck periodically
Refl
• maintain a printed or
Network Analyzer
-10 A Network Analyzer can also
electronically stored copy of the
display polar plots, Smith spectrum analyzer output for
Charts, phase response
-20 A Spectrum Analyzer and comparison
tracking generator can be
used if Network Analyzer not • most types of antenna or
-30
f1 f2
available transmission line failures are
easily detectable with this method
What is the maximum acceptable value of return loss as seen in sketch above?
Given:
 Antenna VSWR max spec is 1.5 : 1 between f1 and f2
 Transmission line loss = 3 dB.
Consideration & Solution:
 From chart, VSWR of 1.5 : 1 is a return loss of -14 dB, measured at the antenna
 Power goes through the line loss of -3 db to reach the antenna, and -3 db to return
 Therefore, maximum acceptable observation on the ground is -14 -3 -3 = - 20 dB.
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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Isolation between Antennas

Often multiple antennas are needed at
a site and interaction is important
 Electrical isolation between antennas
• coupling loss between isotropic
antennas one wavelength apart is 22 db
• 6 db additional coupling loss with each
doubling of separation
• add gain or loss referenced from
horizontal plane patterns
• measure vertical separation between
centers of the antennas
– vertical separation usually is very
effective
 One antenna should not be mounted in
main lobe of another within the near-
field
• near field approx. 10 wavelengths

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Antenna Downtilt
What’s the goal?

Scenario 1 Downtilt is commonly

Cell A used for two reasons:
Cell B  1. Reduce Interference
• reduce radiation toward a
distant co-channel cell
• concentrate radiation within the
serving cell
 2. Prevent “Overshoot”
• Improve coverage of nearby
Scenario 2 targets far below the antenna
– otherwise within “null” of
antenna pattern
 Are these good strategies?
 How is downtilt applied?

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Consider Vertical Depression Angles

 Important to match vertical
pattern against intended
coverage targets
• Compare the angles toward
objects against the antenna
vertical pattern -- what’s
radiating toward the target? Depression
• Don’t position a null of the Angle Vertical
antenna toward an important Distance
coverage target!
 Sketch and formula
• Notice the height and horizontal Horizontal
distance must be expressed in Distance
the same units before dividing
(both in feet, both in miles, etc.)

 = ATAN ( Vertical distance / Horizontal distance )

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Types of Downtilt

 Mechanical Downtilt
• Physically tilt the antenna.
The pattern in front goes
down, and behind goes up
• popular for sectorization and
special omni applications
 Electrical Downtilt
• Incremental phase shift is
applied in the feed network
• the pattern “droops” all
around, like an inverted
saucer
• common technique when
downtilting omni cells

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Scenario 1: Reduce Interference

Vision The Vision:
Cell A  Radiate a strong signal toward
Cell B
everything within the serving
weak cell, but significantly reduce
strong the radiation toward the area
of Cell B

height
The Reality:
difference Reality  When actually calculated, it’s
150 ft
1 2 surprising how small the
difference in angle is between
4 the far edge of cell A and the
12 miles near edge of Cell B.
1 = ATAN ( 150 / ( 4 * 5280 ) ) • Delta in the example is only
= -0.4 degrees
0.3 degrees!!
2 = ATAN ( 150 / ( 12 * 5280 ) ) • Let’s look at antenna patterns
= -0.1 degrees

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Scenario 1: Reduce Interference

 It’s an attractive idea, but
usually the angle between
edge of serving cell and
nearest edge of distant cell is
just too small to exploit
• downtilt or not, can’t get much
+10 deg difference in antenna radiation
-0.1
-0.4 between 1 and 2
-10 deg • even if the pattern were sharp
enough, alignment accuracy and
wind-flexing would be problems
– delta in this example
is less than one degree!
• also, if downtilting -- watch out for
excessive RSSI and IM involving
1 = -0.4 degrees mobiles near cell!
 Power scaling and DPC are
2 = -0.1 degrees more effective for this purpose
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Scenario 2: Avoid Overshoot

 The problem is too little radiation
Scenario 2 toward low, close-in coverage targets
 The solution is common-sense
matching of the antenna vertical
pattern to the angles where radiation
is needed
• calculate vertical angles to targets!!
• watch the pattern nulls -- where do
they fall on the ground?
• choose a low-gain antenna with a
fat vertical pattern if you have a
wide range of vertical angles to “hit”
• downtilt if appropriate
• if needed, investigate special “null-
filled” antennas with smooth patterns

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Other Antenna Selection Considerations

Before choosing an antenna for widespread deployment, investigate:
 Manufacturer’s Measured Patterns
• observe pattern at low end of band, mid-band, and high end of band
• any troublesome back lobes or minor lobes in H or V patterns?
• watch out for nulls which would fall toward populated areas
• be suspicious of extremely symmetrical, “clean” measured patterns
• Obtain Intermod Specifications and test results (-130 or better)
• Inspect return loss measurements across the band
 Inspect a Sample Unit
• physical integrity? weatherproof?
• dissimilar metals in contact anywhere?
• Collinear vertical antennas: feed method?
• end (compromise) or center-fed (best)?
• Complete your own return loss measurements, if possible
• Ideally, do your own limited pattern verification
 Check with other users for their experiences

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Intermodulation Distortion

Transmitters
C
o
m
b
i
n D
e u
r p
s l
e
x
Receivers e
r

Amplitude Intermodulation
distortion can turn
a good-sounding
cellular system
Frequency
IM under control
into a sea of phantom
interferers, dropped
calls, and
intermittent
Frequency crosstalk.
IM products everywhere!
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Intermodulation Distortion
 Every device (amplifier, etc.)
has a relationship between
Power Transfer Characteristics input and output
of a typical amplifier or other device  Normally, the output is a
linear replica of the input,
3dB Predicted
Power except
Compression
point • when the input is so weak it
Output is lost below the noise floor
Power 1dB • when the expected output is
(dBm) Compression stronger than the capabilities
point of the amplifier, and
Noise Floor compression occurs
 Even seemingly passive
Input Power (dBm) devices (cables, connectors,
antennas) have noise floors
and compression points
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Intermodulation Distortion

Input Non-Linear Device Output

f f
f1 f2 3f1-2f2 f1 f2 3f2-2f1
2f1-f2 2f2-f1

 Imagine a non-linear device which is being fed two signals as input

• Input: frequency 1 and frequency 2.
 Because the device is non-linear, its output includes the two input
frequencies and additional signals due to intermodulation distortion
• frequencies of the intermod distortion products are of the form nf1+ mf2
and nf1-mf2 where n,m=1,2,3,....
• The sum n + m is called the the order of the intermod products
 Example:
• 3rd Order Components: 2f1- f2 , 2f2- f1 , 2f1+ f2 , 2f2+ f1
• 5th Order Components: 3f1- 2f2 , 3f2- 2f1 , 3f1+ 2f2 , 3f2+ 2f1

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Concept: Third-Order IM Intercept Point

Power Transfer Characteristics The third-order IM intercept is
of typical amplifier or other device
 a signal level defining the
Predicted
Third order power interference-free dynamic
intercept range of an amplifier or device
point
 defined as the intersection
Output point of:
Power Third Order
(dBm) intermodulation • the slope of normal signals
products and
Noise Floor • the slope of third-order IM
products
Input Power (dBm) – notice the power of 3rd
Strength of 3rd-Order Intermod Products: order intermod products
P3 = 2P1 + P2 - 2P3i (dBm) (for 2f1 +/- f2)
increases 3 times faster
than the original signal
P3 = 2P2 + P1 - 2P3i (dBm) (for 2f2 +/- f1) (its slope is 3 times
Where: steeper)
P1 = Output power @ f1
P2 = Output power @ f2
P3i = 3rd order intercept point
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Intermodulation Problem Examples

 Intermodulation distortion causes many interference and
performance problems with cellular systems. Unfortunately, many
of these problems are never even recognized as resulting from IM.
 The following examples explore example cases of several
mechanisms which commonly generate intermodulation
interference.

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Intermodulation Problem Examples

Case 1: User Receiver Fundamental Overload
 Imagine a cellular handheld is
being used on system “B” at a
signal level of -85 dBm. f3 @
-85 dBm f1 @ -20 dBm
 Next door, there is a cell site f2 @ -25 dBm
of system “A” with just two
channels up, delivering -20
and -25 dbm, respectively.
 What are the 3rd-order IM
levels generated at the front
end of the handheld?
 From calculations at right, the GIVEN:
Input power at f1 = - 20 dBm
3rd-order IM products are at Input power at f2 = - 25 dBm
-35 and -40 dbm, 1 dB. Compression @ -35 dBm
respectively. 3rd order intercept pt = -15 dBm
 If one of these IM products SOLUTION:
P1 = - 20 dBm, P2 = -25 dBm
happens to fall on the system P3 (f1) = 2 (-20) + (-25) - 2(-15) = - 35 dBm
B channel, it will be 45 or 50 P3 (f2) = 2 (-25) + (-20) - 2(-15) = - 40 dBm
db stronger than System B!!
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Intermodulation Interference
Observations on Receiver Overload IM Case

 Problem 1 occurs frequently in the real world.

• Service on a fairly weak signal on one cellular system
• User located close to cell site of the competing system
• no opportunity to filter out strong competing signal, since user’s
receiver has wide front end bandpass to accept both A and B signals
 Several steps could help substantially with this situation
• co-locate competing cells (at least in same area) whenever possible
• in both systems: try to avoid immediate proximity to user locations
– avoid delivering -40 dbm or more into a user’s handheld
– watch out for results of downtilting into densely occupied areas

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Intermodulation Problem Examples

Case 2: Mixing in Corroded Receiving Antenna
 Suppose Antenna B at a
certain cell site has corrosion
f1,2 @ +40 dBm
in one element or in a Cell Site
Transmitters
connector on the coax jumper.
Isolation
• The corrosion acts as a 50 dB Antenna
non-linear conductor with A
an equivalent 3rd order Cell Site
intercept as shown. Receivers corrosion
 Only 10 feet away (
Antenna B
8.8@870 MHz.) is Antenna
A, transmitting frequencies f1 GIVEN:
and f2 each at +40 dBM input. Input power at f1 = -10 dBm
Input power at f2 = -10 dBm
• Isolation from Antenna A to Equiv. 3rd order intercept pt = +25 dBm
Antenna B is approx. -50 db. SOLUTION:
P1 = - 10 dBm, P2 = -10 dBm
 IM products of -80 dbm are P3 (f1) = 2 (-10) + (-10) - 2(+25) = - 80 dBm
generated at the antenna and P3 (f2) = 2 (-10) + (-10) - 2(+25) = - 80 dBm
fed into the cell site receivers!
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Intermodulation Problem Examples

Case 3: Mixing in Corroded Transmit Antenna
 Suppose Antenna A at a
certain cell site has corrosion f1,2 @ +40 dBm
Cell Site
in one element or in a Transmitters
connector on the coax jumper.
Isolation
• The corrosion acts as a 50 dB
non-linear conductor with corrosion
an equivalent intercept as Antenna
Cell Site A
shown Receivers
 IM products of -20 dbm are
generated and radiated Antenna B
 Only 10 feet away ( GIVEN:
8.8@870 MHz.) is Antenna Input power at f1 = +40 dBm
B, with spacing isolation of 50 Input power at f2 = +40 dBm
db Equiv. 3rd order intercept pt = +50 dBm
SOLUTION:
 IM products arrive at Antenna P1 = +40 dBm, P2 = +40 dBm
B with a level of -30 dBm and P3 (f1) = 2 (+40) + (40) - 2(+50) = +20 dBm
are fed into the cell receivers P3 (f2) = 2 (+40) + (40) - 2(+50) = +20 dBm

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Intermodulation Interference
Observation on Antenna Mixing Cases

 Mixing in a corroded transmit antenna is both 1) more likely and

2) more devastating than mixing in a corroded receive antenna.
Consider the last two examples:
• A moderately bad (3IM intercept +50 dBm) transmit antenna produced
-30 dbm IM products at the nearby receiver
• A severely defective (3IM intercept +25 dBm) receive antenna
produced -80 dBm IM products feeding its receivers
 Conclusion: A bad transmit antenna is a more serious problem
than a bad receive antenna insofar as intermodulation effects to a
system are concerned.

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Intermodulation Interference
Practical Observations

 Leading antenna manufacturers are aware of intermod issues and

specify the intermodulation performance of their antennas.
• A typical specification will give a number of RF carriers of a certain
power level and describe the maximum level of intermodulation
products created under those conditions. Ideally, with at least fifteen
cellular carriers of at least 25 watts each, no antenna-generated IM
product should be stronger than -133 dBm, so as not to degrade the
C/I at the noise floor of a typical modern cell site receiver
 Oxidation or corrosion of mechanical joints between dissimilar
metals causes highly non-linear diode action, and creates
intermodulation products. Third order intercepts lower than 0 dbm
can occur!
• avoid dissimilar metals anywhere in the antenna system
• carefully seal and weatherproof all connections to avoid moisture
penetration

April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 37

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Intermodulation Interference
Observations on Connector Materials

 At RF frequencies, current flow is confined to the first few

thousandths of an inch of the surface of a conductor. This
phenomenon results from the electromagnetic fields and is known
as “skin effect”.
 Ferrous conductors (anything with iron or nickel in the compound)
exhibit a slight hall-effect modulation of the skin depth as a function
of current amplitude. This makes a ferrous conductor’s resistance
slightly non-linear at RF frequencies, and this mechanism can
produce intermodulation components strong enough to cause
interference.
 One connector manufacturer recently discontinued use of its
popular low-cost nickel plating after discovering this effect. It is
best to use brass, silver, copper, or gold for all mating surfaces in
RF connectors.

April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 38

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Intermodulation Interference
Observation on Duplexer Usage
Antenna 1 Antenna 2  Duplexing eliminates the need
for a separate transmit antenna
but does provide a possible
reduced-attenuation path for
intermod products from defective
Transmitters
C components in the cell’s transmit
o chain to the receive chain.
m
b  Noise floor measurements on
i cell receivers with all
n D transmitters keyed will reveal the
e u
r p
presence of any intermod.
s l  Comparing the noise floor of the
e duplexed and independent
x
e diversity receivers is an easy
Receivers
r way to determine the presence
of any intermod products from
the transmit chain via the
? duplexer.
April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 39
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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Intermodulation Interference
Summary
Intermodulation Problems come in three general categories,
each with its own considerations and methods of resolution:
 Internally-Generated within system
• identify mis-adjusted or defective components, find & replace
– avoid excessive gain settings for RX multicouplers, use
manufacturer’s recommendations to preserve dynamic range
– watch for bad PAs, combiners, duplexers, etc.
 System-Design-Related Overload Cases
• don’t overload users’ receiver front ends!
• use DPC on mobiles to avoid overload of cell front end by users!
• use bandpass filters if needed to attenuate nearby competing users
 External Cases involving mixing in antenna system or nearby
• carefully select antennas with specified intermod performance
• watch out for dissimilar metal junctions in your antennas and nearby
• carefully seal all outdoor RF connections, occasionally inspect/sweep

April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 40

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Locating Intermodulation Interference

 Use available PC software for calculating suspected intermod product
frequencies
 If you hear a spurious signal, use all available clues to identify it
• what type of signal: cellular-style conversation? other type signal?
• deviation: wider (louder) than normal? if so, IM is probably involved
• multiple voices audible: IM probably involved; identify all you can
 Pinning down the source of intermodulation generation
• strength variation by padding is one means of locating an IM source
– A pad inserted AFTER IM generation point will attenuate the intermod
by its specified attenuation value
– A pad inserted BEFORE IM generation point will attenuate the intermod
by a multiple of its specified attenuation value
f1 Non-Linear PAD IM
Original Situation Device Y dB -Y db
f2
f1 Non-Linear f1 PAD Non-Linear
Device IM IM
f2 Y dB Device
f2 -2Y db
April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 41
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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Characteristics of Transmission Lines

 Physical types:
• coaxial, stripline, open-wire
• balanced, unbalanced
 Attenuation:
• varies with frequency, size, dielectric
characteristics of insulation
D d
• usually specified in db/100 feet and/or
db/100 meters
 Characteristic Impedance (50 ohms is
commercial standard)
• determined by geometry and dielectric
characteristics of insulation Characteristic Impedance
of a Coaxial Line
• connectors must preserve constant
impedance Zo = ( 138 / ( 1/2 ) ) Log10 ( D / d )
 Velocity Factor
• determined by dielectric characteristics of  = Dielectric Constant
insulation = 1 for dry air
 Power-Handling Capability
• varies with size, conductor materials,
dielectric characteristics
April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 42
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Transmission Lines:
Electrical Properties

 Transmission lines have impedance-transforming properties

• When terminated with same impedance as Zo, input to line appears as
impedance Zo
• When terminated with impedance different from Zo, input to line is a
complex function of frequency and line length. Use Smith Chart or
formulae to compute
 Special case of interest: Line section one-quarter wavelength long
• ZIN = (Zo)/(ZLOAD)

April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 43

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Transmission Lines:
Some Practical Considerations

 Transmission Lines: Some Practical Considerations

• Periodicity of inner conductor supporting structure can cause VSWR
peaks at some frequencies: specify frequency band when ordering
• Air dielectric lines:
– lower loss than foam-dielectric; dry air is excellent insulator
– shipped pressurized; do not accept delivery if pressure leak
• Foam dielectric lines
– simple, low maintenance; despite slightly higher loss
– small pinholes and leaks usually allow bad water penetration

April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 44

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Transmission Lines:
Important Installation Practices

 Respect specified minimum bending radius!

• Inner conductor must remain concentric, else Zo changes
• Dents, kinks in outer conductor change Zo
 Transmission lines must be supported throughout length
 During hoisting, allow line to support its own weight only for
distances approved by manufacturer. Deformation and stretching
may result, changing the Zo. Use hoisting grips, messenger cable
 After mounting, support line with proper mounting clamps at
intervals not farther than 3-4 feet. Otherwise, strong winds will set
up damaging metal-fatigue-inducing vibrations
 Don’t bend large, stiff lines (1-5/8” or larger) to make direct
connection with antennas. Use appropriate jumpers,
weatherproofed properly. Secure jumpers against wind vibration.

April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 45

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Cellular Reradiators
 Reradiators (also called “boosters”,
“repeaters”, “cell enhancers”) are amplifying Cell RR
devices intended to add coverage to a cell site
 Reradiators are transparent to the host cellular
system
• A reradiator amplifies RF signals in both directions,
uplink and downlink
• The system does not control reradiators and has
no knowledge of anything they do to the signals
they amplify, on either uplink or downlink Reradiators are a
‘“crutch” with
 Careful attention is required when using definite application
reradiators to solve coverage problems restrictions. Many
• to achieve the desired coverage improvement operators prefer not
• to avoid creating interference to use re-radiators at
all. Occasionally, you
 These limitations and inherent problems, will encounter a
along with the commercial availability of problem which can
microcells, are reducing interest in new be reasonably solved
reradiators by a reradiator.

April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 46

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Cellular Reradiators
 Two types of Reradiators
commonly are applied to solve
two types of situations:
• “filling in” holes within the Cell RR
coverage area of a cell site --
valleys and other obstructed
locations, convention centers,
etc.
– Low-Power broadband
reradiators are used for
this purpose
RR
• expanding the service area of
a cell to large areas beyond its Cell
natural coverage area
– High-Power, channelized
frequency-translating
reradiators are used for
this purpose

April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 47

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Cellular Reradiators
Propagation Path Loss Considerations
 To solve a coverage problem using a reradiator, path loss and link
budget must be considered
• how much reradiator gain is required?
• how much reradiator output power is required?
• what type of antennas would be best?
• how much antenna isolation is needed?
• how big will the reradiator footprint be?
• how far can the reradiator be from the cell?
• will the reradiator interfere with the cell in other areas?
Path Loss Gain RR
Cell Gain
(free space
ERP usually applies) Line Loss Path Loss (free space??)
RR
Gain Signal Level
in target area

April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 48

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Passive Cellular Reradiators

Typical Link Budget
 In a few special cases, it is possible to
reradiate useful cellular coverage Passive Reradiator
without any amplifiers involved! Link Budget Example
Donor cell EIRP +52 dBm
 Link budget is marginal Path Loss Donor<>RR -102 dB
• donor cell must be nearby RR Donor Ant. Gain +22 dBi
• high-gain antenna required toward Signal Level into Line -28 dBm
donor cell RR Line Loss -6 dB
• distance from RR to user must be small RR Serving Ant. Gain +12 dBi
Path Loss RR<>User -69 dB
– 100 feet feasible w/omni antenna
Signal Level @ User -91 dBm
– 500 feet w/directional antenna
Donor Path Loss
Cell (2.1 miles,
ERP free space)
Basement Auditorium, etc.
Line Loss Path Loss
-6 db (250 ft., free space)

April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 49

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Broadband Low-Power Cellular Reradiators

 Used mainly for filling
small “holes” in
coverage area of a cell Broadband
Reradiator
 Input and output on
same frequency Cell
Unavoidable
• usable gain: must be Coupling
less than isolation
between antennas, C
o
BPF:
Uplink
C
o
m m
or oscillation occurs b
i
b
i
• this gain restriction n
e
r
BPF:
Downlink
n
e
r
seriously limits
available coverage
• Typically achievable
isolations: 70-95 dB Cellular Spectrum
• Good point: every
channel in donor cell Frequency
is re-radiated
April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 50
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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Broadband Low-Power Cellular Reradiators

Typical Link Budget
 Broadband low-power reradiators can Broadband Reradiator
Link Budget Example
deliver useful signal levels over Donor cell EIRP +52 dBm
footprints up to roughly 1 mile using Path Loss Donor<>RR -111 dB
nearby donor cells RR Donor Ant. Gain +12 dBi
 Link budget is usually very “tight” RR Line Loss -3 dB
• paths can’t be seriously obstructed Signal Level into RR -50 dBm
RR Gain +50 dB
• antenna isolation must be at least 10
RR Power Output +0 dBm
db more than desired RR gain RR Line Loss -3 dB
• can’t overdrive reradiator 3rd. order IM RR Serving Ant. Gain +12 dBi
Path Loss RR<>User -89.4 dB
Donor Signal Level @ User -80.4 dBm
Path Loss Gain RR
Cell Gain
(6 miles, Path Loss
ERP free space) Line Loss
(1/2 mile,
RR free space)
Gain Signal Level
in target area
April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 51
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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Broadband Cellular Reradiators

Area of Interference with Donor Cell

 Broadband reradiators inevitably create

an area of multipath interference where
neither the RR signal nor the donor
signal is dominant
RR Service Area
• this area can be minimized by careful design
Donor
• the interference is not too troublesome for Cell
analog voice channels but is devastating to
control channels and to IS-54 TDMA RR

• to avoid this problem, some reradiators Interference

frequency-translate just the control channel; area
this creates no problems since neither the
mobile nor the system uses the absolute
control channel number in any messages

April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 52

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Channelized Reradiators
 Frequency translation applied Spectrum to/from Subscriber
• Input, output on different channels
• usable gain no longer limited solely
by isolation between transmit
antennas notice frequency translation
 Uses channelized technology Frequency
• narrowband, high-power amplifiers
can produce as much power as a Spectrum to/from Donor Cell
cell site
• coverage area can be as large as a
typical cell site
 Drawbacks: C
RX 1 PA 1
C
O
• mobile is not on the channel the M
RX 2 PA 2 O
M
B
system thinks it is on ! I
RX 3 PA 3 B
I
• reradiator must translate all N
E
RX 4 PA 4 N
E
Cell
references to frequency in system R
RX 5 PA 5 R
order messages to the mobile RX 1
• locate measurements and RX 2
handoffs are complex problem
PA RX 3
• capacity only 5 channels (4 voice,
RX 4
one setup/voice, no setup when
5th channel used for voice) RX 5

April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 53

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Channelized Cellular Reradiators

Typical Link Budget
Channelized High Power Reradiator
 Channelized high-power reradiators Link Budget Example
can deliver useful signal levels over Donor cell EIRP +52 dBm
footprints as large as ordinary cells Path Loss Donor<>RR -119 dB
RR Donor Ant. Gain +14 dBi
 Link budget is usually workable RR Line Loss -3 dB
• can tolerate significant obstructions Signal Level into RR -56 dBm
• antenna isolation not highly critical RR Gain +100 dB
RR Power Output +44 dBm
• can’t overdrive reradiator 3rd. order IM
RR Line Loss -3 dB
 Handoffs are difficult & complex RR Serving Ant. Gain +12 dBi
Path Loss RR<>User -140 dB
Donor RR Signal Level @ User -87 dBm
Path Loss Gain
Cell
Gain
ERP (15 miles, Line Loss Path Loss
free space) (typical mobile multi-path)
RR
Gain Large
Coverage Area
April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 54
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Channelized Reradiators
Handoff Dilemma
The mobile is not operating on the channel on
Example:
which the system hears it.
Reradiator A translates
 Hand-In five channels from Cell B.
• The system will never order a mobile to hand in to
the reradiator from any cell; reradiator is “invisible”
• “Predator” strategy: reradiator A must lure mobiles
from cell B donor channels, transmitting its own Cell B
handoff orders on the forward channel, attempting
to override cell site B at the mobile Predatory Hand-In
• Adjoining cell C can’t locate mobiles being served Blind Hand-Back
by the reradiator. It hears reradiator instead!!
RR A
 Hand-Out (“Hand-Back” to donor cell)
No Handoff
• Reradiator must itself initiate any hand-out orders
• Reradiator can only order the mobile to hand back
to its non-translated channel on the donor cell B Cell C
• Call dies on handback unless user near donor cell
• No mechanism to hand to a cell other than donor
• A “Daisy-chain” of reradiators is possible, reusing
same four channels, but capacity is very poor
April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 55
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Other Reradiator Issues

 Dynamic Range, Dynamic Power Control
• reradiator situations must be designed to avoid overload of the reradiator by
close-in mobiles or by the donor cell at full power, while preserving sensitivity,
carrier-to-noise ratio, and dynamic range
• link balance (forward//reverse paths) must be maintained
• broadband re-radiators with AGC (Automatic Gain Control) require special
attention to prevent one strong mobile from “capturing” the reradiator and
degrading the level of all other weaker signals
• linearity and power control/dynamic range issues make broadband reradiators
difficult to use for CDMA, and all reradiators difficult to use for TDMA
• channelized reradiators cannot be used for CDMA
 Propagation Delay
• Propagation delay of channelized reradiators can add the equivalent of several
miles of free-space propagation delay, reducing the otherwise-feasible range of
TDMA/CDMA cells
 Traffic Capacity
• Re-radiators may introduce enough new traffic to require addition of channels
in the donor cell
 Alarms
• Separate arrangements must be made for integrating alarms and surveillance
reports from reradiators into the system

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Interactions between Wireless Sites

and other Communication Systems
 Antenna Interactions
• blocking or shadowing by closely-spaced antennas
• pattern distortion due to induced currents & re-radiation
 EMI/RFI ElectroMagnetic Interference,
Radio Frequency Interference
• crosstalk induced in audio circuitry
• erratic operation of T1s, data circuits
 Radio Interference
• intermodulation products
– externally generated due to high signal levels
– generated by receiver overload
– generated in unprotected transmitters
• spurious products (noise, harmonics)
 RF Exposure Biological Hazards near other high power sites
April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 57
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Key Parameters of
Communication Systems
System Frequencies Wavelength TX Power ERP
T 869-896 MHz 13-14 in 1-60 watts 1-300 watts
AMPs Cellular Sites R 824-841 MHz 33-36 cm per carrier per carrier
T 1930-1990 MHz 5.9-6.4 in 1-45 watts 1-1000 watts
PCS Sites R 1850-1910 MHz 15-16 cm per carrier per carrier
615-1822 ft 250 watts 250 watts
AM Broadcast 540-1600 KHz
187-556 m to 50 kW. to 500 kW.
9.1-11.2 ft. 10 watts 10 watts
FM Broadcast 88 - 108 MHz
2.8-3.4 m. to 40 kW to 100 kW
VHF TV Broadcast 54 - 88 MHz
11.1-18 ft 10 watts 10 watts
Channels 2-6 3.4 - 5.6 m to 50 kW to 100 kW.
VHF TV Broadcast 174 - 216 MHz.
4.6-5.6 ft 10 watts 10 watts
Channels 7-13 1.4-1.7 m to 100 kW. to 316 kW.
UHFTV Broadcast 174 - 216 MHz.
1.2-2.1 ft 100 watts 10 watts
Channels 14-69 37-64 cm to 220 kW. to 5 MW

Land Mobile, 30 - 50 MHz

152-174 MHz 1.2-2.1 ft 1 watt 10 watts
SMR, ESMR & 450-470 MHz. 37-64 cm to 1 kW. to 10 kW.
Paging 800-900 MHz.

April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 58

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Interactions between Wireless Sites

and AM Broadcast Stations
 Broadcaster affected
• cellular tower may intercept
and reradiate enough AM
energy to alter the AM
coverage pattern --
especially if broadcaster is AM
already directional and has
carefully-controlled pattern
shape. FCC will require
cellular operator to correct
 Wireless system affected
• strong signal intercepted by
cell site wiring can cause
audible crosstalk of radio
program on analog voice
circuits, or erratic operation
of T1 & data circuits
April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 59
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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Neutralizing AM Broadcast Re-radiation

by using a Detuning Skirt
 Best solution: avoid building in the Cellular
vicinity of AM antennas Antennas
Top of skirt
 Second-best solution: connected to tower
• If AM radial measurements show
insulated
excessive reradiation, detune the supports
cellular structure using a wire skirt
• the skirt “cancels” the reradiation by Skirt Wires
carrying a current equal in strength but (at least 3,
opposite in direction to the current D spaced evenly
naturally induced in the tower itself around tower)
• adjustment of tuning components in the
detuning box to obtain cancellation is insulated
very “touchy” supports
Cellular feedlines
• Skirt height is determined by available
space on tower, or by D from formula: Cell Site
Optimum D in meters and feet: Detuning Shelter
Dmeters = 60,000 / (AM Freq., KHz.) Box
Dfeet = 200,000 / (AM Freq., KHz.) Earth Ground

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Neutralizing AM Broadcast Re-radiation

by using a Detuning Skirt
 L and C in box are chosen for resonance
at AM frequency and tuned to set up Detail of Tuning Box
proper current and phase in skirt Skirt Wires
• L = typically 25 -125 uH @ 6 amps
– use non-corroding straps, not wire or
braid, for all connections Feed-through
Insulator Tower
– make connections to L using clips to Leg
allow very sensitive adjustment
L
• C = typically 1000 pF to 3000 pF
C
– vacuum-variable best, but $$$; fixed
mica OK - at least 6 kV, 5 A
 AM field strength meter measures
residual current in tower leg to indicate AM Field
Strength
degree of cancellation Meter inductive
• L and C connections carefully adjusted to coupling
achieve resonance and then to minimize
residual current
April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 61
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Neutralizing AM Broadcast Re-radiation

by using a Detuning Skirt
 Guy wires of the cellular tower
can also re-radiate AM signal!
• insulators must be used to
break guy wires into sections s
too short to re-radiate
 Antenna feedlines on the the
cellular tower must be
electrically connected to the
tower to avoid reradiation Maximum non-radiating length S:
Dmeters = 4,500 / (AM Freq., KHz.)
• at the top of their runs Dfeet = 15,000 / (AM Freq., KHz.)
• at the point where they leave
the tower
• at intervals of not over 100 ft
(30m) (ignore if inside
monopole)
• use grounding kits supplied by
the cable manufacturer
April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 62
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Other Detuning Resources

 Detuning structures to prevent AM re-radiation is quite different
from ordinary cellular and PCS RF practices and can be complex
 Sometimes it is less expensive to turn to vendors and consultants
in the broadcast industry to resolve difficult problems
• advantage: ready availability of parts, materials, kits
• advantage: familiarity with design and adjustment techniques
A few vendors and consultants are shown below. Check ads in
broadcast trade and engineering magazines for others.

Consultants active in detuning work:

A Detuning hardware vendor:
Communications Engineering Service
Kintronic Laboratories
(Washington DC area)
PO Box 845
(703) 534-7880 Fax (703) 534-7884
Bristol, Tennessee 37615
(615) 878-3141
William Culpepper & Associates (NC area)
Fax (615) 878-4224
(704) 365-9995
•Skirt kits & components
DuTreil-Rackley Associates (FL area)
•Detuning network kits, parts
(813) 366-2611 Fax (813) 366-5533

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Eliminating Crosstalk
due to AM Broadcasters
 Crosstalk occurs when high-
level AM signal is rectified in Ground antenna Ground cabinets
sensitive audio circuits feedlines prior and decouple
to building entry incoming lines
 AM RF Pickup mechanism:
every incoming wire is an
AM receiving antenna
 Identify circuits where
interference is present AC
• Identify probable RF
coupling mechanism CSU
• Decouple external lines
using L-C networks or tuned
stubs Shield sensitive
Decouple circuits
audio and data
• Use shielded wiring for circuits between
experiencing
sensitive audio and data interference
cabinets
circuits between cabinets
April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 64
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Decoupling Methods for AM Crosstalk

AM frequencies: 540-1600 KHz No Decoupling
Affected Equipment Rectification occurs in
Wavelengths: 600 - 1800 Feet first junction
(Ch Bank, P-3, etc)
 Incoming circuits are encountered
contaminated with RF RF contamination
• rectification occurs in first
solid-state junction(s)
encountered “Lumped” L-C Decoupling
 “Lumped” L-C circuits Affected Equipment Typical values
• good technique for C = .02 uF L = 2 mH
L
analog audio circuits
(voice, modem) Clean C
L RF contamination
• watch out: can’t directly C

decouple high-bandwidth
circuits (T-1s, etc.) Decoupling “Stub” /4 200,000/Freq
ft AM KHZ
 Decoupling stubs Affected Equipment EXAMPLE: 161 FT. @ 1240 KHz

• less degradation of circuit /4

bandwidth: OK for T-1s Clean foil-shielded RF
• /4 is long! OK to coil
in a convenient location grounded end floating end
April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 65
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AM Crosstalk
Additional Techniques for Severe Cases
 If AM signal is extremely
strong (>1000 mV/m), even
ground wires and cables
between cabinets become
contaminated with RF AC
 Shield the entire cell site
shelter using expanded mesh CSU
copper screen
• connect all seams and
corners; use metal door and
ground with multiple flexible
braids across hinges
• this is best done during
shelter manufacture
• don’t forget to ground or
decouple every circuit
coming in or out!!
April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 66
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Interactions between Wireless Sites

and FM Broadcast Stations
 Wireless System Injured
• strong FM signal may
overload cellular
receivers, producing
intermod FM
• strong FM signal may
create intermod products
in nearby metal objects
• strong FM signal
intercepted by cell site
wiring may cause white
noise or audible crosstalk
of radio programming into
analog voice circuits, and Power
erratic operation of T-1s &
data circuits
• possible long-term T-1
exposure hazard near CSU
high-power FM antennas
April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 67
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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Interactions between Wireless Sites

and TV Broadcast Stations
 Wireless System Injured
• strong TV signal
intercepted by cell site UHF-TV
wiring may cause “sync
buzz” in analog voice
circuits, erratic operation VHF-TV
of T-1s & data circuits
• strong TV signal may
create intermod products
in nearby metal objects
• strong TV signal may
overload wireless
receivers, producing
intermod which causes Power
“sync buzz” on specific
wireless channels
• possible long-term T-1
exposure hazard near CSU
high-power TV antennas
April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 68
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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Eliminating Crosstalk due to

FM and TV Broadcasters
 Crosstalk occurs when strong
FM or TV RF is rectified in Decouple circuits
sensitive circuits experiencing
 TV/FM RF Pickup mechanism: interference
any short length of wire is a
receiving antenna
• “grounding” of cell cabinets,
etc., has NOTHING to do with
the problem -- a ground
connection only 6 inches long
is a very good antenna!!
 Identify circuits where Channel CSU
interference is present Bank T-1
• Decouple at the affected
equipment, using L-C networks Shield sensitive
or tuned stubs audio and data
circuits between
• Use shielded wiring for cabinets
sensitive audio and data
circuits between cabinets
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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Decoupling FM and TV RF
Frequencies: 54-806 MHz No Decoupling
Affected Equipment Rectification occurs in
Wavelengths: 1.2 - 18 feet first junction
(Ch Bank, P-3, etc)
 How rectification occurs encountered
• every circuit contaminated RF contamination
• rectification occurs in first
solid-state junction(s)
encountered “Lumped” L-C Decoupling
 “Lumped” L-C circuits Affected Equipment Typical values
• parts are very small C = 100 pF L = 10 uH
L
• apply directly at terminals
of affected equipment -- Clean C
L RF contamination

do not allow even a few C

inches of exposed wire

Decoupling “Stub” /4
after decoupling!! INCHES 2,500/FreqMHZ

 Decoupling stubs Affected Equipment EXAMPLE: 27.5 INCHES. @ 88 MHZ.

• easier to apply than /4

lumped L-C circuits Clean foil-shielded RF

grounded end floating end

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

FM and TV Interference Crosstalk

Additional Techniques for Severe Cases
 If the FM/TV signals are
extremely strong or
numerous, shield the entire UHF-TV
cell site shelter using
expanded mesh copper
screen VHF-TV
• connect all seams and
corners; use metal door and
ground with finger stock
against contacts on door
• this is best installed during
shelter manufacture
• don’t allow any openings
larger than 1/8 wavelength!!
• don’t forget to ground or
decouple every circuit
coming in or out!!

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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Interactions between wireless sites

and other Communication Systems
 Today’s fast telecommunications
growth forces Cellular and PCS
systems to share an increasing
number of sites with Land mobile,
ESMR, and paging systems
 Watch out for antenna interactions
• blocking, shadowing, excessive
coupling
 Watch out for intermod cases
• use an intermod products program
to analyze frequencies in use
• analyze possible path and levels
from each TX to each RX at each TX Circ Comb Duplexer Duplexer Comb Circ TX

user’s frequencies for each

possible point where IM might be
generated RX Splitter Preamp BPF

• watch out for corroded objects

which can cause IM
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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Observe RF Exposure Guidelines

 Although RF radiation is non-
ionizing, and the epidemiologic D UHF-TV
data is inconclusive, our medical
understanding of RF and any
possible effects is incomplete
 Avoid continuous RF exposure in
excess of appropriate guidelines
• US ANSI: 1 mW/cm2 D VHF-TV
• Canadian: 0.6 mW/cm2
• Typical distance to source, D:
– UHF-TV: 500 ft.+/-
– VHF-TV: 200 ft. +/- D FM
– FM: 100 ft. +/-
– Cellular/PCS: 5-15 ft.
 Limit exposure to higher levels to 6
minutes or less, infrequently D
 Read and follow the progress of Cellular
ongoing research in this field /PCS
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RF Engineering Seminar 1000 Lesson 5

Lesson 5 Complete

April 23, 1995 Issue 1.04 74