BS105 Business Administration: Noel Muzondo

BS105 Business
Administration
Noel Muzondo
Department of Business Studies
Faculty of Commerce
University of Zimbabwe
Writing and passing assignments and
examinations
References
Cameron, S. (2011) The MBA Handbook: Academic and Professional
Skills for Mastering Management, 7th Edition, Essex: England, Pearson
Education.
Writing assignments and reports, Chapter 15, pp. 337-382.
Passing examinations, Chapter 17, pp. 398-411.
7/5/2019 Noel Muzondo BS105 Business Administration II 2

Writing and passing assignments and
examinations
I’ve trained as a manager and you are training as managers including
our friends coming from the College of Health Sciences i.e. student
pharmacists and radiographers (do we have radiographers here?).
For us to write and pass our assignments and examinations without
incidents, we do not only have to study and write the given pieces of
assessments but also ensure that the we do it in the right way.
I come from the marketing profession hence I believe that you
market yourself even as you write your assignment and examinations.
Presentation is critical if you care about getting a good mark or even
a distinction in your assessments.
Presenting answers in assignments and
examinations: Use management report format
If an assignment or examination question is silent on the format you
should use to present your answer, thou shall use management report.
What is management report format?
You are all doing a Communication Skills course, where I believe you are being taught
how to write, prepare and present different pieces of work e.g. assignments, letters,
reports, presentations, etc.
Crudely, a management report format is a style of writing in which whatever you are
writing is written following the format of a management report.
This means that you have to structure or organise whatever you are writing with
suitable subheadings: title, introduction, body (with suitable subheadings, I shouldn’t
see the word “body” anywhere in your answers as a subheading), and conclusion.

Why is management report format important in
presenting answers in exams and assignments?
The format forces you to be deliberate, planned and structured in
your approach; you will not put pen to paper without first thinking
through your structure for the answer.
Subheadings must be used to structure your answer so that your
assessors or examiners don’t look for answers buried in your essay,
but look for highlights.
Remember your examiners are not geologists who are trained to sniff
minerals buried underground.
So if you write an essay, i.e. an answer with no subheadings, you are
asking me to be a geologist, that won’t sell you dear.
How do we generate subheadings?
Take down this question first:
“Critically analyse the relevance of the marketing mix framework
to the pharmaceutical sector in your country”.
Subheadings for an answer are generated from the theory,
concept(s), model(s) or framework(s) underlying the key terms in the
question; hence look no further than the question.
Subheadings do not only assist to highlight the major points but to
break the grey matter on your script and to prove, at a glance, that
you know the subject matter.
A person who does know the right theory or concepts cannot generate
suitable subheadings!!!

Answer organised in management report
format (subheadings)
1. A critical analysis of the relevance of the marketing mix to the pharmaceutical sector in my
country
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The marketing mix in the pharmaceutical industry
1.2.1 Product
1.2.2 Price
1.2.3 Promotion
1.2.4 Place
1.2.5 Physical evidence
1.2.6 People
1.2.7 Processes
1.3 Conclusion

Leadership
Key References
Daft, R.L. and Marcic, D. (2011) Management: The New Workplace, 7th Edition, South-Western Cengage
Learning, pp. 378-408.
Smit, P.J. and Cronje, GJ de J (Eds) (2002) Management Principles: A Contemporary Edition for Africa, 3rd
Edition, Cape Town: Juta, pp. 275-300.
Robbins, S.P. and Coulter, M. (2012) Management, 11th Edition, Essex, England: Pearson Education, pp. 486-
511.
Robbins, S.P., Coulter, M. and … (2012) Management, 10th Edition, Essex, England: Pearson Education, pp. 486-
511.
Goodman, S.H., Fandt, P.M., Michlitsch, J.F. and Lewis, P.S. (2007), Management: Challenges for Tomorrow’s
Leaders, Mason, Ohio: Rhomson South-Western, pp. 272-293.
**Don’t worry yourself by the various citations in these notes. Understand the theory and concepts. Citations
may only earn you bonus marks in examinations.

Introduction
Whenever an organisation finds itself in trouble, it should investigate
leadership as the possible cause of the problem (Smit & Cronje,
2002:277).
If you ask staff about their jobs you’ll probably learn that they
complain about leadership (ibid).
If we study large corporations, we’ll discover that the biggest barrier
to change is lack of leadership skills.

Introduction (Cont’d)
There is so much irresponsible and inferior leadership in the world
that many people doubt the value of leadership especially considering
the huge remuneration of chief executives officers (Smit & Cronje,
2002:277).
Despite these blunt realities, leadership is one of the most
researched and discussed areas of management (Daft & Marcic,
2011:381)
In this topic we explore the nature and definition of leadership,
examine the importance of leadership, clarify management and
leadership; explore theories of leadership, leadership and follower
styles, and contemporary issues in leadership.

What is leadership? What is the nature of
leadership?
The literature admits that leadership is a somewhat elusive concept to
define precisely.
Smit and Cronje (2002:278) offer the following definition:
“Leadership is the process of directing the behaviour of others towards the
accomplishment of the organisation’s goals. It involves taking the lead to bridge the
gap between formulating plans and reaching goals, in other words translating plans
into reality.”
However, Daft and Marcic (2011:381) simply define leadership as the
ability to influence people toward the attainment of goals.
Hence leadership is reciprocal; it takes place among people.
Leadership is a people activity distinct from administration (Daft & Marcic
2011:381).
What is leadership? What is the nature of
leadership? (Cont’d)
Leadership entails elements such as influencing people, giving orders,
motivating people either as individuals or in groups, managing
conflict, and communicating with subordinates or followers such that
they willingly accomplish tasks.
Leadership is also such an influential concept that it can be abused to

the detriment of progress and societal wellbeing.
For instance, imagine how leadership was applied to organise and execute
the Rwandan genocide in which between 800 000 and 1 million people were
hacked to death in the mid 1990s in a period of six months!!!

Differences between management and
leadership
Good managers should be good leaders too since the two concepts
are complementary in practice.
The primary distinction between management and leadership is that
management promotes stability, order, and problem solving within
the existing organisation structure and system (Daft & Marcic,
2011:387).
Leadership, on the contrary, promotes vision, creativity, and change
(ibid).
Leadership focuses on questioning the status quo so that outdated,
unproductive, or socially irresponsible norms can be replaced to meet
new challenges (ibid
Manager Qualities Leadership Qualities
MIND SOUL
Rational Visionary
The University of Leicester
Consulting Passionate
even makes a distinction
Persistent Creative
between administrator,
Problem solving Flexible
manager and leadership
Tough-minded Inspiring
qualities.
Analytical Innovative
Structured Courageous
Administrators don’t even
Deliberate Imaginative
use their minds; they just
Authoritative Experimental
enforce policy even where it
Stabilising Initiates change
makes little sense given the
Position power Personal power
situation.
Components of leadership
 Leadership is a complex function of management hence the definition we gave earlier
on is only an attempt to shade light on many components of the concept.
 Some of the leadership components may have been explained in previous chapters of
your syllabus hence I’ll explain only a few of these in this presentation.
Authority
Power
Influence Leadership
Delegation
Responsibility and accountability
Authority, Power and Influence
Both followers and leaders use power, influence, and authority to get
things done in organisations (Daft & Marcic, 2011:399; Smit & Cronje,
2002:279).
Authority is the right of a leader to give orders and to demand action from
subordinates.
Power refers to the ability of a leader to influence the behaviour of others
without necessarily using authority.
We return to this concept in the next slide.
Influence is the ability to apply authority and power in such a way that
followers take action.

Sources of power
Research done by French and Raven identifies the following types or
sources of power (explained in the following slides), which both
leaders and followers can tape into:
Legitimate power
Reward power
Coercive power
These three types of power are categorised as position power (Daft & Marcic, 2011:399)
because they stem from the position occupied by a manager in the organisation.
Referent power
Expert power
These two sources of power are also referred to as personal power (Daft & Marcic,
2011:400) because they originate from within the person e.g. personal characteristics
and special knowledge.

Legitimate power
This is the authority that the organisation gives to a particular
position, which permits the person holding the position the right to
compel subordinates to perform their duties and to dismiss them if
they do not.
Legitimate power is, therefore, the same as authority.
Nonetheless, the fact that a manager has legitimate power does not
make him or her a good leader.

Reward power
This is the power to give or withhold rewards.
Such rewards may include a salary raise, bonuses, recognition, or

interesting assignments.
The more rewards a manager can give, and the more important
these rewards are to subordinates, the greater will be his or her
reward power.

Coercive power
This is the power to force compliance through fear, either
psychological or physical.
Criminal gangsters usually apply coercive power through physical

violence.
There is certainly no question about physical violence in modern

organiations, but psychological or emotional fear of dismissal or social
exclusion from a group is a kind of power that managers can use to
bring pressure to bear on their subordinates.

Referent power
This is personal power that a person wields hence is a somewhat
abstract concept.
A person with referent power is followed by his or her followers or

subordinates simply because his or her followers like, respect, or
identity with him or her .
In other words the leader’s personal qualities make him or her
attractive and such a leader has charisma, charm, appeal or
attractiveness.

Referent power (cont’d)
Many of you guys dress like the celebrities you admire because of the
referent power they (your role models) have.
Marketers make sometimes use of referent power designing
messages strategies of advertising campaigns.
There are many examples where celebrities e.g. soccer stars, musicians,
religious leaders, etc. act as brand ambassadors, spokespersons, endorsers, or
users.
Referent power thus sells.
Leaders who have referent power are attractive to their followers.

Expert power
This is power based on knowledge or expertise.
Leaders who possess expert power have profound influence on those

who need their knowledge, information or even opinion on key
issues.
The more important the information, the fewer the people who
possess it, the greater the power of the people who possess it.

Expert power (cont’d)
Recently, I met a former primary school mate of mine in South Africa,
who was my senior at school.
It was like almost 25-30 years since we last met at that rural primary
school in Zimbabwe.
The guy has since done a PhD in English and teaches at
Witwatersrand University; I really admired him as I saw him as having
expert power.
As we chatted, and I told him that I was studying a research degree in
nation branding, a branch of marketing. I was surprised when, all of a
sudden, the guy said: “You are powerful here, wait until you finish
your studies. I regret the field I studied!”
Expert power (cont’d)
Marketers apply expert power in crafting and executing advertising
campaigns.
If you watch television, listen to the radio, read newspapers, and surf the
internet, you will realise the multiplicity of advertisements that use what is
known as an expert appeal to execute a message.
In an expert appeal, a person who is knowledgeable about something
related to the brand being advertised is featured in an ad endorsing the
brand.
I’m sure you have seen ads of drugs featuring pharmacists, ads of
toothpaste featuring dentists; that is expert power in action!!!
Leaders who have expert knowledge command more respect than those
without such power.

Other sources of power
Position power
We have seen that French and Legitimate power
Raven sources of power can be Reward power
divided into two classes—position Coercive power
power and personal other.
Personal Power
Expert power
As shown in the table opposite, Referent power
current literature now
acknowledges a third source of Other Sources of Power
power—other sources of power Personal effort
(Daft & Marcic, 2011; Goodman,
Network of relationships
Fandt, Michlitsch & Lewis, 2007).
Information
Personal effort power
People who are initiative, assertive, work hard, and are prepared to
go an extra mile in learning about their organisation and its sector
may gain power from that effort.
 Managers tend to depend on particular subordinates whom they

know they can count on take on a disagreeable job or put forth extra
effort when it is required (Daft & Marcic, 2011:401).

Network of relationships power
A person who has a dense network of relationships in the
organisation and the industry has greater power (Daft & Marcic,
2011:401).
Therefore, leaders and subordinates who cultivate and sustain cordial
relationship within and outside the organisation tend to have the
greatest power.
In a country with high levels of unemployment such as Zimbabwe, I
believe that university graduates coming from well-networked
families have a higher probability of securing employment earlier
than those coming from poorly networked backgrounds.

Information power
Indeed information is power because it enables informed decision
making.
Information power is based upon control of information (Goodman
et al., 2007) and that power usually, officially, lies with senior
managers and decreases as one moves, to middle management,
lower management, and operatives levels .
Information is a primary business resource hence people who have
access to information and control over how and to who it is given are
usually powerful (Daft & Marcic, 2011:401).

Information power (Cont’d)
However, in reality, subordinates who are inquisitive and have expert
knowledge may still wield high information power.
For example, marketing people, even at the lowest level, are likely to
have high market information power because of the nature of their
training.
For this reason, many organisations engaging marketing consultants
usually insist on having them signing a contract that forbids them
starting a business competing with the client organisation within a
defined time period after finishing a consultancy assignment.

Conclusion on sources of power
A manager who possess all five types of power we have discussed is a
strong leader.
Nevertheless, not only managers or leaders possess power; subordinates
too also have power.
A subordinate may have special information about how to perform a task,
an area of specialisation, or on how to persuade other subordinates to
accept a proposed change.
Managers may rely on such subordinates to attain specific organisational
goals.
It is important that managers balance their power with that of their
subordinates (see figure in the next slide).

Conclusion on sources of power
Power of manager over subordinates Power of subordinates over manager
Subordinates’ dependence on manager Manager’s dependence on manager
Even if a person is not in management or formal leadership the person can

still be a leader by virtue of referent, expert, personal effort, network of
relationships and information power they wield (see two examples below).
To acquire referent power you need to work on your “person brand”, yes you are
brand!!!
To acquire expert power you need to find a niche for yourself, a knowledge area that
isn’t yet flooded by people, and focus your energies and investments there.

Theories of Leadership
Up to three leadership theories or approaches are suggested in the
literature, which attempt to build knowledge on the construct of
leadership (see Daft & Marcic, 2011; Robbins & Coulter, 2012):
 Leadership trait theories
 Leadership behaviour theories
Contingency theories of leadership
Goodman, Fandt, Michlitsch and Lewis (2007:276) divide these three
into three categories of leadership approaches (shown in the next
slide).

Three categories of leadership approaches
Leader Centred We discuss leadership using trait,
 Traits and skills behaviour, and contingency theories
 Behaviour, and power integrating our discussion with the
leader-centred, follower-centred, and
interactive leadership of Goodman et
Follower Centred al.’s (2007).
 Self-leadership
 Leadership substitutes The aspect of power has already been
examined before in this presentation so
we will focus on substitutes of
Interactive leadership just to clarify Goodman et
 Situational-leadership al.’s (2007) three categories of
 Empowerment leadership approaches but under
 Transformational leadership current developments in leadership.
Trait Theory of Leadership
Early attempts to understand leadership success focused on the
leader’s traits (Daft & Marcic, 2011:387).
The assumption of the trait theory of leadership is that people are
born with certain physical characteristics, aspects of personality, and
aptitudes that make them successful leaders (Goodman et al.,
2007:275).
Traits are the distinguishing personal characteristics of a leader such
as intelligence, honesty, self-confidence, and even appearance (Daft &
Marcic, 2011:387).

Trait theory of leadership (Cont’d)
Early studies on leadership focused on the level of greatness that
leaders achieved hence the great man approach emerged.
Those studies focused on what made leaders great and the findings
were at one time being drawn on to select future leaders.
The focus of traits or the great man approach of the trait theory
makes it a truly leader-centred approach as suggested by Goodman et
al. (2007:276).

Early research only found a weak relationship between personal
traits and successful leadership.
However, some traits associated with leader success in recent years

are drive, desire to lead, self-confidence, intelligence, job relevant
knowledge, and extraversion (Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991; Judge &
Bono, Ilies & Gerhardt, 2002 cited in Robbins & Coulter, 2012:489)

Leadership research, however, indicates that traits cannot guarantee
a person’s probable success as a leader since trait theory ignores the
effect of situational factors and leader-follower interactions on
leadership effectiveness (Robbins & Coulter, 2012; Goodman et al.,
2007; Daft & Marcic, 2011).
It is from this realisation that the behavioural theory of leadership

emerged.

Behavioural Theories of Leadership
The focus of behavioural theories of leadership, as denoted by the word
“behaviour” is focused on the behaviour of the leader with two primary
behaviours of leaders being “task-oriented behaviour” and “people-
oriented behaviour” (Daft & Marcic, 2011:387) or “democratic style” versus
“autocratic style” (Robbins & Coulter, 2012:490).
In the next few slides we focus on four studies and/or operational models
to shade light on the behavioural theory of leadership i.e.:
University of Iowa studies
Ohio State Universities studies
University of Michigan studies
The leadership grid

University of Iowa studies
The University of Iowa examined three leadership styles in an
attempt to identify the most effective (Robbins & Coulter,
2012:490)—autocratic style, democratic style, and laissez-fair style.
Autocratic style – describes a leader who dictates work methods, makes
unilateral decisions, and allow only limited employee participation in decision
making. This fits the leader-centred approach of Goodman et al. (2007).
Democratic style – explains a leader who involves employees in decision
making, delegates authority, and uses feedback as an opportunity for
coaching employees. This fits Goodman et al.’s (2007) follower-centred
approach.
Laissez-faire style – leader lets followers make decisions and complete work
in whatever manner they see appropriate.

University of Iowa studies on autocratic,
democratic, and laissez-fair leadership styles
The Iowa studies seem to show that the democratic style was more
effective in both the quality and quantity of work output.
However, later studies of the democratic and autocratic styles

showed mixed results in terms of quantity and quality of work
(Robbins & Coulter, 2012:490).
The democratic style, nonetheless, was found to be superior with

respect to employee satisfaction (ibid) while the autocratic style is
likely to produce the most dissatisfaction with employees.

Ohio State University studies
The Ohio State University studies zeroed in on two critical dimensions of
leader behaviour—consideration and initiating structure.
Consideration behaviour is a people centred leadership behaviour so leaders who
depend on this style respect the ideas and feelings of followers, and seek to cultivate
mutual trust. This is a synonymous with Goodman et al.’s (2007) follower-centred
leadership.
Initiating structure defines the extent of task behaviour—i.e. the extent to which a
leader is task-driven and directs followers toward goal achievement. This echoes
Goodman et al.’s (2007) leader-centred leadership.
Ohio State research established that leaders with both high consideration
and high initiating structure achieved better performance and greater
employee satisfaction than other leadership styles perhaps e.g.
consideration behaviour alone and initiating structure alone.

University of Michigan Studies
 Studies in Michigan conducted by academics at the University of Michigan
almost at the same time as the Ohio State studies described above focused on
comparing the effective and ineffective leaders.
 The studies found that employee-centred leaders were more effective getting the
goals attained despite that they were people-centred while job-centred leaders
were not.
 In fact, job-centred managers tended to be less concerned with goal attainment
and human needs concentrating instead on meeting production efficiency,
adhering to schedules, and keeping costs low. Such managers implement for
implementation’s sake.

Black and McCanse’s leadership grid
Building on the Michigan and Ohio studies as well as Black and
Mouton’s managerial grip, Black and McCanse proposed the
leadership grid model.
The leadership grid has five styles of leadership (as shown in the next
slide).
I regard this model as self-explanatory hence I will explain it from the
model itself rather than use separate notes on each leadership style
on each grid aspect—leader style.

Leadership grid (cont’d)
High 9 1,9 9,9
8 Country Club Management Team Management
7
6
Concern
5 5.5
for People
4 Middle-of-the-Road Management
3
2
Impoverished Management Authority-Compliance
Low 1 Management 9,1
1,1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Low Concern for High
Production

Contingency approaches
The contingency theories focus on the leader-follower relationship of
behavioural theories to examine how the organisational situation
influences leadership style (Daft & Marcic, 2011:388).
We explain two common theories usually included in the contingency

approach to leadership—Hersey and Blanchard’s situational theory
and Fiedler’s contingency theory (Daft & Marcic, 2011; Robbins &
Coulter, 2012).

Fiedler’s contingency theory
In his contingency theory, Fielder examines how two common
leadership styles – task-oriented and relationship-oriented – that he
believes are relatively fixed and difficult to change, are affected by the
organisational situation, which may be either favourable, moderately
favourable, or unfavourable to the leader.
Just like in the leadership grid, a task-oriented leader has high

concern for the job and less concern for human relations while the
relationship-oriented leader is the exact opposite of the former.

Fiedler’s contingency theory (Cont’d)
It is clear in Fiedler’s framework the situation in which the task-oriented
leadership style is effective and the one in which the relationship-oriented
leadership style is effective (see figure next slide).
Once the leader’s style has been or identified, there are three contingency
variables that underlie a leader’s effectiveness as explained below:
Leader-follower relations is the extent of confidence, trust, and respect employees
have for their leader; rated as poor or good.
Task structure is the degree to which assignments are formalised and structured;
rated as low or high.
Position power is as already explained under the section on power; power is the
influence a leader has over activities such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and
salary increases; rated as weak or strong.

Fiedler’s contingency model
Task-
Good
Oriented
Performance
Poor Relationship
Oriented
Situation
Highly Favourable Moderately Favourable Highly Unfavourable
Favourableness
Category I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Leader-Member Good Good Good Good Poor Poor Poor Poor
Relations
Task Structure High High Low Low High High Low Low
Leader Position Power Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak

Criticisms on Fiedler’s contingency theory
It is, perhaps, not realistic to assume that a leader cannot change his
or her leadership style to fit the situation (Robbins & Coulter, 2012;
Daft & Marcic, 2011).
If leadership is to be effective, leaders should be able to adjust their
style to fit the situation.

Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership
theory
Daft and Marcic (2011:390) argue that the situational leadership
theory (SLT) is an extension of behavioural theories or styles
explained in the leadership grid already clarified above.
The theory pays particular attention to the characteristics of
followers to determine the appropriate leadership style.
The major argument of the theory is that followers vary in the degree
of task readiness because of their level of training such that those
with little or no training require a different leadership style compared
to those with suitable training and/or skills in their jobs (see figure in
the next but one slide)

Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership
theory (Cont’d)
The situational leadership model (shown in the next slide) has four
leadership styles—delegating, participating, selling and telling.
The bell-shaped curve in the figure is called the prescriptive curve
because it shows when each leadership style must be used.
Lawrence Summers, the former president of Harvard University
employed a telling style or top-down approach and faculty (his
subordinates) passed a vote of no confidence in him, and had to
resign without implementing his plans (Daft & Marcic, 2011:391).

Hersey and Blanchard’s situational model
High Share ideas Explain decisions and
and facilitate in provide opportunity
decision for clarification
making S3 S2
Supportive
behaviour/
Relationship Turn over Provide specific
Behaviour responsibility for instructions and
decisions and closely supervise
S4 implementation performance S1
Low Task behaviour (Guidance)
High
Follower Readiness
High Moderate Low
Readiness 4 Readiness 3 Readiness 2 Readiness 1
Able and Willing or Able but Unwilling or Unable but Willing or Unable and Unwilling
Confident Insecure Confident or Insecure
Follower Directed Leaders Directed

Substitutes for leadership
Robbins and Coulter (2012:504) and Daft and Marcic (2011:393)
agree that the final contingency approach is that situational attributes
may be so influential that leadership may not be essential.
Some defined individual, job, and organisational variables may act as
“substitutes for leadership”, removing the influence of the leader.
A number of situational variables may reverse the need for
leadership e.g. individual level of knowledge and professionalism in
the context of academics; nature of job (i.e. highly structured e.g.
bank teller), and organisational (e.g. group cohesion, formalisation,
inflexibility, low position power).

Current views on leadership
Having looked at leadership theories in the previous section, in this
section we review a number of contemporary, or present-day, views
on leadership: i.e. leader-member exchange theory, followership,
charismatic and visionary leadership, transformational versus
transactional leadership, servant leadership, moral leadership, leading
across cultures, and gender and leadership.

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
 LMX theory recognises that leaders have their favourite subordinates, who
constitute their in-group, and not-so-favourable subordinates, who make up
their outgroup.
Followers in the in-group will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and
higher job satisfaction (Daft & Marcic, 2011:497).
LMX theory submits that a leader will classify a given follower as an “in-group” or
“outgroup” and the relationship with in-group members tends to remain
moderately steady over time.
It is not certain, however, how leaders categorise their subordinates into the “in-”
and “out-group” but evidence suggests that in-group members have similar
demographic, attitude, personality, and gender and higher level competence than
out-group members.
Followership
One cannot understand leadership well without making reference to
followership i.e. the people who work with the leader as
subordinates.
Several of the characteristics that define a good leader are the same
characteristics as those held by a good follower (Daft & Marcic,
2011:396).
Knowing the distinctions in followers can assist to improve one’s
effectiveness as both a leader and a follower.
Kelley (1992) designed a model of styles of followership which
suggests five follower styles in terms of two variables: critical thinking
versus uncritical thinking and active vis-à-vis passive participation (see
figure next slide).
A model of styles of followership Effective Follower
A critical, independent
Alienated Follower thinker who actively
A person who is a critical, Independent, critical thinking participates in the
independent thinker but is organisation
passive in the organisation. Has
experienced setbacks with their Alienated Effective Pragmatic Survivor
superior(s) but also A follower with qualities
overemphasises the boss’s for all four follower styles
weaknesses. Passive Pragmatic Active who adapts to suit own
Participation Survivor Participation position and minimise risk.
Passive Conformist
Dependent, uncritical thinking

Conformist
Passive Follower A follower who participates actively in the organisation
A person who exhibits neither critical but does not use critical thinking skills. A conformist
independent thinking nor active typically carries out any and all orders without questions
participation. hence can even do dirty and unethical jobs for superiors.
Charismatic and visionary leadership
Charisma is the charm, personality, appeal, attractiveness and captivation
that a leader commands, which influence followers’ energy and
commitment to the cause, department or organisation hence driving them
to exceed performance targets even in the face of obstacles.
As a result, charismatic leaders are known to be capable of motivating and
inspiring their followers to exceed performance targets notwithstanding
personal sacrifice and obstacles.
Some personal characteristics of charismatic leaders include the following:
they have a vision, the ability to articulate a vision, a willingness to take
risks to achieve that vision, a sensitivity to both environmental constraints
and follower needs, and behaviours that are extraordinary (Robbins &
Coulter, 2012:498).

Charismatic and visionary leadership(Cont’d)
Examples of charismatic leaders include Nelson Mandela, Mother
Theresa, Martin Luther King Jnr, Adolf Hitler, Osma bin Ladin, and
Emmanuel Makandiwa.
Imagine how the ideals of these leaders affect people today.
Charismatic leaders are expert in the art of visionary leadership (Daft
& Marcic, 2011:394).
A vision is a desired future state or dream that is credible but not
immediately attainable.
Charismatic and transformational leadership resonate with followers
hence spur them to perform to attain the vision.
Charismatic and visionary leadership(Cont’d)
Charismatic and visionary leaders tend to emerge at a particular time
when a society or business is in stress, crisis and faces uncertainty
threatening its very own sustenance and existence.
For instance, many of the charismatic leaders to date have surfaced in

politics, religion, or wartime; or when a business is starting up or facing a
survival crisis (emphasis added) (Robbins & Coulter, 2012:498).

Transformational vis-à-vis transactional
leadership
Transformational leaders are similar to charismatic leaders, but they
are different in that they possess special ability to bring forth
innovation and change by recognising followers’ needs and concerns,
assisting them to look at old problems in new ways, and encouraging
them to question the status quo (Daft & Marcic, 2011:396).
Transformational leaders do not inspire followers to believe in the
leader but also in themselves as architects and agents of change for
the better of the organisation.
Transformational leaders can initiate changes in organisational
mission, strategy, structure and culture and promote product and
process innovation.

leadership (Cont’d)
Unlike transactional leaders, transformational leaders rely on
intangible qualities such as vision, shared values, and ideas to build
relationships, give higher meaning to various activities, and find
common ground to recruit followers in the change process.
The transactional leadership model views the leader’s role as being
primarily to lead by using social exchanges or transactions (Robbins &
Coulter, 2012:496).
Transactional leaders inspire their followers to pursue agreed goals
by exchanging rewards for productivity.

leadership (Cont’d)
Thus, whereas transformational leadership relies on personal power
(i.e. expert power and referent power), transactional leadership
depends on position power (i.e. especially reward power) to motivate
followers to attain organisational goals.
Transactional leaders assist employees to do their jobs by clarifying
roles and how to execute them but, unlike transformational leaders,
change and innovation is not on their agenda.

Servant leadership and moral leadership
In today’s world environment characterised by inequality, corruption,
greedy, ethical scandals, and compromised employee trust in
leadership, two timeless approaches to leadership are gaining
renewed interest and attention – servant leadership and moral
leadership – to make a positive difference.
Ethical scandals involving leaders are common in the business and
political arena.
I’m you know about the Enron scandal in the USA and
Just yesterday, 5 April 2016, on Aljezera, did you see the story on over a
hundred political leaders who are evading taxes in their countries and
stashing their worth in so-called safe havens in other countries?
Servant leadership
A servant leader is a leader who works to attain the needs, wants
and goals of subordinates and to accomplish the organisation’s
strategic goals.
Thus the key virtue of servant leadership is that leaders are there to
serve followers rather than for them to be served.
Servant leaders empower and support their followers in their work.
In my opinion, a servant leader is selfless, humble, and spends time
with subordinates doing work with them.

Servant leadership (Cont’d)
Sometime toward end 2015, did you hear about what the new
President of Tanzania, who replaced Jakaya Kikwete, do?
He suspended the usual independence day celebrations (I suppose marked
with speeches and grand parties) to mobilise people to do community
service—he spend the day with residents of Dares Salaam cleaning the
streets!!!
A relation of mine working in Botswana has convinced me that
President Ian Khama is a servant leader:
“Khama regularly visits different parts of the country without giving prior
announcement. A family may be surprised to learn that one morning as they
have breakfast, there is a knock on the door, and upon saying ‘come in’ the
president walks in and joins them at the breakfast table”.

Servant leadership (Cont’d)
If you are a leader, and see yourself as too busy and smart to regularly
spend a considerable amount of your of time wearing overalls to work
alongside employees at different levels in your organisation, then you do
qualify as a servant leader.
Servant leaders motivate followers to do more than they would under
other leadership styles because they learn that their leader values them.
When a leader spends time with subordinates, doing subordinates’ work that is
otherwise regarded as demeaning to leaders, subordinates realise they are valued
and are motivated to exceed targets.
I personally believe in the principle of servant leadership: leaders are there
to serve not to be served.

Moral leadership
Think of the following leaders and organisations:
Adolf Hitler, Nelson Mandela, Martin Luther King Jnr, Osma Bin Laden, Al
Shabaab (Somalia), Boko Haram (Nigeria), Islamic State … (Middle East),
Emmanuel Makandiwa, Premier Services Medical Aid Society Investments,
and South Africa during apartheid.
“Because leadership can be used for good or evil, to help or harm
others, all leadership has a moral component” (emphasis added)
(Daft & Marcic, 2011:404).
Leadership must come with a huge responsibility to use its power
with wisdom and a sense of ethics or morals as opposed to
selfishness and greedy.

Moral leadership (Cont’d)
Moral leadership entails separating right from wrong and choosing to
do the right thing in using leadership.
Moral leaders are courageous, decent, honest and just.
If, as a result of loyalty to superiors, you are prepared to do anything
that is not in the interests of subordinates, then you cannot be a
moral leader.
Most people want to be liked by leaders and they can do anything,
including harming others, to please leaders.
Remember the conformist construct we discussed under styles of
followership earlier on.

Leading across cultures
We are now living in a multicultural and globlised world.
The pressure of globalisation are not sparing managers and leaders
of organisations.
Globalisation has produced many and challenging situations for
leaders who are accustomed to leading within a single national
culture.
Because most leadership theories were developed in the West,
especially the United States of America, they reflect American values
as opposed to values of other regions and nations of the world e.g.
culture, spirituality, religion, superstition (Robbins & Coulter,
2012:502)and respect for authority and community.
Leading across cultures (Cont’d)
Leaders thus must adapt themselves to leading in different cultures.
Certainly, a leadership style applied in Zimbabwe may be inappropriate in
South Africa.
However, cross-cultural research on leadership reveals that many
principles of transformational leadership are universal regardless of
the country a leader is in.
These principles include vision, foresight, providing encouragement,
trustworthiness, dynamism, positiveness, and proactiveness (Robbins
& Coulter, 2012:502).

Gender, women and leadership
Gender and women affect leadership.
Gender is not the sexual or biological but social distinction between
women and men.
Unlike sex, you cannot capture gender on a business form although many
people and organisations out there would like us to believe that “gender” and
“sex” are synonyms; they are not.
Research has established that men and women have different
leadership qualities or styles and that the way women lead is
particularly suited to the demands of modern organisations.

Gender, women and leadership (Cont’d)
Drawing data from actual performance evaluation, it was revealed that
when rated by superiors, peers and subordinates, female managers score
significantly higher than men when rated on abilities like interactive
leadership, listening, motivating others, persuasiveness, promoting
communication, and considering others’ views (see Daft & Marcic,
2011:384; Goodman et al., 2007:288).
Another study of leadership and followership in businesses, universities,
and government agencies found that women often score higher on social
and emotional skills, which are critical for interactive leadership (see Daft &
Marcic, 2011:384).
Studies indicate that both men and women executives agree that women
have to be exceptional to succeed in the business world (Goodman et al.,
2007:288).

Gender, women and leadership (Cont’d)
Interactive leadership is defined as a preference for consensual and
collaborative processes in which influences come from relationship
rather than position power and official authority (Daft & Marcic,
2011:384).
From the foregoing definition it is clear that interactive leadership partly
thrives on relational or network of relationships power which we examined
earlier on in this presentation.
However, some men are also good in interactive leadership.
Emotional intelligence or skills is the ability to manage ourselves and
our relationships with others (Goodman et al, 2007:287).

Conclusion
This presentation has looked at the construct of leadership in its
various manifestations.
It defined leadership, distinguished leadership from management
and discussed power and its sources; examined theories of
leadership, leadership styles, followership styles, and current issues in
leadership theory and development.

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BS105 Business

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Leadership is also such an influential concept that it can be abused to

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Legitimate power is, therefore, the same as authority.

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Such rewards may include a salary raise, bonuses, recognition, or

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Criminal gangsters usually apply coercive power through physical

There is certainly no question about physical violence in modern

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A person with referent power is followed by his or her followers or

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Leaders who possess expert power have profound influence on those

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 Managers tend to depend on particular subordinates whom they

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Power of manager over subordinates Power of subordinates over manager

Subordinates’ dependence on manager Manager’s dependence on manager

Even if a person is not in management or formal leadership the person can

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However, some traits associated with leader success in recent years

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It is from this realisation that the behavioural theory of leadership

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However, later studies of the democratic and autocratic styles

The democratic style, nonetheless, was found to be superior with

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8 Country Club Management Team Management

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We explain two common theories usually included in the contingency

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Just like in the leadership grid, a task-oriented leader has high

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