What is Modern Physics?

• Modern physics only came of age in the 1900’s.

– Physicists discovered that Newtonian mechanics did not apply
when objects were very small or moved very fast!
• If things are confined to very small dimensions (nanometer-scale),
then QUANTUM mechanics is necessary.
– Atomic orbitals, quantum heterostructures.
• If things move very fast (close to the speed of light), then
RELATIVISTIC mechanics is necessary.
– Cosmic particles, atomic clocks (GPS), synchrotrons.

Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 1

 Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model
• Optical (Atomic) Spectra
– Lower-energy optical absorption/emission lines from materials
indicate quantized electron energy levels.
– Bohr model predicts energy transitions for one-electron atoms.
• X-ray Spectra
– Analogous to optical spectra, but for higher-energy x-ray
transitions of heavier, multi-electron elements.
• Franck-Hertz Experiment
– Quantized inelastic scattering of electrons in Hg gas provide
evidence for atomic energy levels.
• Rutherford Scattering Experiment
– Large scattering angles of alpha particles from atoms in a metal
foil indicate a “hard” nuclear model.
Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 2
 Atomic Spectra

• In 1885, Balmer observed Hydrogen spectrum and saw colored lines.

– Found empirical formula for discrete wavelengths of lines.
– Formula generalized by Rydberg for all one-electron atoms.

Prism separates Q: Where is Red

wavelengths vs. Blue line?

Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 3

 Atomic Spectra: Modern Physics Lab

High Voltage
Supply
Neon Tube (to “excite” atoms)

Diffraction
Eyepiece
Grating
(to observe lines)
(to separate light)

Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 4

 Atomic Spectra: Hydrogen Energy Levels
E = 0 eV Paschen Series
n=3 (IR)
Balmer Series
n=2
(visible)
Energy

1
En  2 Lyman Series
n (ultraviolet)

E1 = -13.6 eV n=1
Lyman Balmer Paschen
Example Data

Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 5

 Atomic Spectra: Rydberg Formula for H

1  1 1 
For Hydrogen:  R   with ni  n f
n  n final 2
n
2 
f ni  initial 

• Rydberg constant R ~ 1.097 × 107 m-1

• nfinal = 1 (Lyman), 2 (Balmer), 3 (Paschen)

• Example for n = 2 to 1 transition:

1 1 1  3
  2  2  R  (1.097  107 m1 )
12  1 2  4
 12  121.6 nm Ultraviolet

Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 6

 Bohr Model

• Problem: Classical model of the electron “orbiting” nucleus is

unstable. Why unstable?
– Electron experiences centripetal acceleration.
– Accelerated electron emits radiation.
– Radiation leads to energy loss.
– Electron eventually “crashes” into nucleus.
• Solution: In 1913, Bohr proposed quantized model of the H atom to
predict the observed spectrum.

Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 7

 Bohr Model: Quantization of L, f

• Bohr proposed two “quantum” postulates:

– Postulate #1: Electrons exist in stationary orbits (no radiation) with
quantized angular momentum.
h
where   6.58  1016 ev  s
Ln  mvr  n 2
h = Planck's Constant

– Postulate #2: Atom radiates with quantized frequency f (or energy

E) when electron makes a transition between two energy states.

hc
hf   Ei  E f

• Note: The product hc of Planck’s constant h and the speed of light c
gives: hc = 1240 eV nm in “Modern Physics” units.
Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 8
 Bohr Model: Quantization of r, E

• Quantized angular momentum L leads to quantized radii and energies

for an electron in a hydrogen atom or any ionized, one-electron atom.

 n2 
rn  ao   where ao  0.0529 nm (Bohr radius)
 Z 
 

 Z2 
En   Eo  2  where Eo  13.6 eV (H ionization energy)
n 
• Derivation uses the following:
1
n  kZe2  2
rn  (Quantized Ln ) v  (from centripetal and electric forces)
mv  mr 
 
Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 9
 Bohr Model: IMPORTANT Energy Formula
• Energy transitions yield general Rutherford formula.
– Applicable to ionized atoms of nuclear charge Z with only one
electron.

1  Eo   1 1 
 Z 2
 hc   2  2  or
    n f ni 

hc  1 1 
 E f  Ei   Z Eo  2  2 
2

  n f ni 
 

• where hc = 1240 eV nm in “Modern Physics” units.

Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 10

 Bohr Model: Transition Energy Problem
Find the energy E , frequency f , and wavelength  of the series limit (i.e.,
highest energy transition) for the Brackett spectral series (nf = 4) of Be3+.

hc  1 1 
E f  Ei   Z E0  2  2 
2

 n n 
 f i 
where n f  4 for Brackett, ni =  for Series Limit, Z  4 for Be

 1 1 
E  42 13.6 eV   2  2   13.6 eV
4  
hc 1240 eV nm
    91.2 nm
E 13.6 eV
c 3  108 m / s 15 1
f   9
 3.29  10 s
 91.2  10 m
Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 11
 Bohr Model : Unknown Transition Problem
If the energy of a particular transition in the Helium Paschen series is
2.644 eV, find the corresponding transition, i.e. initial and final n values.
 1 1 
E  E f  Ei  Z E0  2  2 
2
 nf ni 

1 1 E
2
 2  2
ni nf Z E0
1/ 2
 1 E 
ni   2  2 
 nf Z E0 
 
where n f = 3 for Paschen Series, Z  2 for He
1/ 2
 1 2.644 eV 
ni   2  2   4
3 2 13.6 eV  

Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 12
 Bohr Model: Ionization Energy Problem
Suppose that a He atom (Z=2) in its ground state (n = 1) absorbs a photon
whose wavelength is  = 41.3 nm. Will the electron be ionized?

Find the energy of the incoming photon and compare it to the ground
state ionization energy of helium, or E0 from n=1 to .

hc 1240 eV nm
E    30 eV
 41.3 nm
 
E0 ( He)  Z 2  E0 ( H ) = 22 13.6 eV   54.4 eV

The photon energy (30 eV) is less than the ionization energy (54 eV), so
the electron will NOT be ionized.

Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 13

 Bohr Model: Rotational Energies for Diatomic Molecule

• In addition to quantized electronic energy

levels, there are quantized rotational energy n=5
levels due to “rotating” nuclei.

n=4
n2 2 2
En   n Energy
n=3
2
MR
n=2
n=1
Diatomic
Molecule "Quick" Derivation:

Ln 2 n 
2
En (rot )  
2I
2 MR 2 2 
Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 14
 Bohr Model : Rotational Energy Problem
Calculate the energy difference between the first excited rotational state and
the ground state for a bromine (80 amu) diatomic molecule (R~ 0.2 nm).
Use only “modern physics” units of nm and eV (amu = 931.5 MeV/c2).

n2 2 n2 h2 c2
En   where  h / 2 .
MR 2
 2  Mc 2 R 2
2
 

12 1240 eV nm 
2
E  n  1 to 0  
 2 
2
80  931.5  10 6
eV   0.2 nm  2

E  1.3  105 eV (13  eV )

Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 15

 Bohr Model: “Vibrational” SHO Energy Levels

• There are also quantized vibrational

energy levels due to “oscillating” nuclei. n=5

n=4
En  n   n
Energy n=3

n=2

n=1

"Quick" Derivation:

 
En  1 2 mv 2  1 2 kr 2  1 2 m  rn   1 2 m 2 rn 2
2

 
En  m 2 rn 2 where rn 2 
Ln

m m
n

Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 16

 X-Ray Spectra
• In 1913, Moseley measured characteristic x-ray spectra of 40 elements
(energy ~ keV).
• Observed “series” of x-ray energy levels called K, L, M, etc.
– Analogous to optical series for hydrogen (e.g. Lyman, Balmer,
Paschen)
• X-rays vs. optical light
– Higher-energy x-ray transitions for heavier elements.
– Lower-energy optical transitions for lighter elements.
• Moseley Plot gives equation with similarities to Rydberg equation.

En  An (Z  b)2 where b  " shielding factor "

2

Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 17

 X-ray Spectra: “Stylized” Diagram of Atomic Levels

Ma for n = 4 to 3

La for n = 3 to 2

Ka for n = 2 to 1
n=1

n=2
a for n+1 to n n=3
b for n+2 to n
g for n+3 to n
Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 18
 X-ray Spectra: Moseley Plot and Energy Formulas
Wavelength  Å) K Series
n = 2,3,etc. to n = 1
L Series
hc  1 
EK   E0 1  2   Z  1
2

  n 
La
n = 3 to 2 Derived from Bohr’s formula with
Z-1 “effective” charge instead of Z
due to shielding of nucleus.
Ka
n = 2 to 1 L Series
K Series n = 3,4,etc. to n = 2

hc 1 1
Kb EL   E0  2  2   Z  7.4 
2

n = 3 to 1  2 n 

f
Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 19
 X-ray Spectra: Transition Energy Problem

Find the energy of the Kb x-ray line for Al.

2
1 
K-series: EK  E0  Z  1 1  2 
 ni 
where ni  3 for K b (n f  1 for K series) and Z  13 for Al

2 1
EK b  13.6 eV 13  1 1  2   1741 eV
 3 

Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 20

 X-ray Spectra: Unknown Z Problem

If the wavelength of the La x-ray line for an unknown element is

 = 0.3617 nm, find the element number Z.

hc 1 2
1 
L series: EL   E0  Z  7.4   2  2 
L 2 ni 
where ni  3 for La (n f  2 for L series)

1
 hc  1 1
 
2
Z  7.4   2  2 
 E0 La   2 3 
 1240 eV nm 
 Z  7.4      7.2   1815
2

 13.6 eV  0.3617 nm  
 Z  7.4   42.6  Z  50 tin

Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 21

 Franck-Hertz Experiment
• In 1914, Franck and Hertz directly measured the energy quantization
of atoms via the inelastic scattering of electrons.
– Electron IN and Electron OUT (same electrons)
• Summary of Experiment
– Measure current of electron beam (I) vs. accelerating grid voltage
(V) inside a glass tube filled with Hg gas (5 eV transition).

Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 22

 Franck-Hertz Experiment: Modern Physics Lab

Franck-Hertz Tube
Electron Acceleration
Beam Voltage

Collector

Voltage Sensor #2: Voltage Sensor #1:

Collector Current Acceleration Voltage
Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 23
 Franck-Hertz Experiment: I-V Data
– At 4V: e- reaches collector.
• EK = 4 eV: Observe maximum current I.
IV Data
– At 5V: excites (1) Hg atom.
e-
• Promote Hg e- to excited state.
• EK = 5eV - 5eV (to excite Hg) = 0 eV
e- does not reach collector.
• Observe minimum current I.
– At 6V: e- excites (1) Hg atom & reaches collector.
• Ek = 6eV - 5eV = 1 eV
e- barely reaches collector.
• Current starts to rise again.
– At 10V: e- excites (2) Hg atoms.
• Ek = 10eV - 2(5eV) = 0 eV
e- does not reach collector.
• Observe 2nd minimum in current I.
•Continue with same logic to explain multiple minima in IV curve.
Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 24
 Rutherford Scattering: Nuclear Model
• Rutherford scattering probes the atom. (Hit it with something!)
– Beam of a particles (He2+) strikes a thin gold metal foil.
– Atoms in the foil scatter the alpha particles through various scattering
angles q that are detected with a scintillation screen.
– 180º scattering can occur (“back bounce”), indicating a “hard core”
interaction between the a particles and atoms in the foil.
• “Nuclear” model by Rutherford explains large scattering angles.

Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 25

 Rutherford Scattering: Nuclear Model
• Atomic Model must include: 10-10 m dia., electrons, neutral atom.

• Model #1 - Thomson’s “Plum Pudding” Model.

• Model #2 - Rutherford’s Hard Core “Nuclear” Model.
 Nuclear Model proven correct by Rutherford’s experiment.

“Plum Pudding” Model “Nuclear” Model

+ sphere electrons
a

Failure (q too small)

+Ze (nucleus)
Success (large q possible)
Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 26
 Rutherford Scattering: Schematic with Parameters
• Scattering occurs due to coulombic electric repulsion FE between
incoming +a particles and +nuclei in metal foil.
• b = impact parameter (distance of closest approach, b gives q)
• s = b2 = scattering cross section
qq11
Hyperbolic
 kqa QZ  q  q2
b   cot 
path
 2
2
 am v

b2
a2
a1
b1
+Ze kqa QZ
FE 
r2
Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 27
 Rutherford Scattering: Other Quantities
• Scattering fraction f = fraction of particles scattered through
angles > q for given b.
Naoutq I s N nuclei
f   o where I o  beam intensity, s   b 2 ,
Nain I o Abeam
N nuclei  ntAbeam , n  density, t  thickness

f   b nt 2

• Radius of closest approach rd

– Derive using conservation of kinetic and potential energy.
kqa Qnucleus
Ek  U Coulomb  1
2
mv 
2

rd

rd 
kqa Qnucleus

 ke 2
 Za Z nucleus 1.44 eV nm  2  Z nucleus

1
2 mv 2 Ekinetic Ekinetic
Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 28
 Rutherford Scattering: Fraction f Problem
A gold foil (Z = 79, n = 5.9×1028 atoms/m3) of thickness 2 m is used in
a Rutherford experiment to scatter a particles with energy 7 MeV. Find
the fraction f of particles scattered at angles q > 10°.

First, find the impact parameter b for q = 10° and then solve for f.

kqa QAu q Za Z Au  ke 2  q
b10º  cot  cot
2 Ka 2 2 Ka 2
 2  79 1.44eV  nm   10o  4
b10º  cot    1.86  10 nm

2 7  106 eV   2 

f10º   b 2 nt

   
13 2
f10º   1.86  10 m 5.90  1028 / m3 2.0  106 m  0.013

Phys 320 - Baski Topic 1: Nuclear Atomic Model Page 29