Program Design and Software Tools: Introduction To C++ Programming

1
IS 0020
Program Design and Software Tools
Introduction to C++ Programming
Lecture 1
Jan 6, 2004
 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

2
Course Information
• Lecture:
– James B D Joshi
– Tuesdays: 6:00-8.50 PM
• One (two) 15 (10) minutes break(s)
– Office Hours: Wed 3:00-5:00PM/Appointment
• Pre-requisite
– IS 0015 Data Structures and Programming Techniques
• Textbook
– C++ How to Program- Fourth Edition, by H. M. Deitel, P.
J. Deitel, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2003, ISBN: 0-13-
038474.

3
Course Information
• Course Description
– An introduction to the development of
programs using C++.
– Emphasis is given to the development of
program modules that can function
independently.
• Object-oriented design
– The theory of data structures and
programming language design is continued.

4
Grading
• Quiz 10% (in the beginning of the class; on

previous lecture)
• Homework/Programming Assignments 40%
(typically every week)
• Midterm 25%
• Comprehensive Final 25%

5
Course Policy
• Your work MUST be your own

– Zero tolerance for cheating
– You get an F for the course if you cheat in anything however small
– NO DISCUSSION
• Homework
– There will be penalty for late assignments (15% each day)
– Ensure clarity in your answers – no credit will be given for vague
answers
– Homework is primarily the GSA’s responsibility
• Check webpage for everything!
– You are responsible for checking the webpage for updates

6
Course Policy
• Your work MUST be your own

– Zero tolerance for cheating
– You get an F for the course if you cheat in anything however small – NO
DISCUSSION
• Homework
– There will be penalty for late assignments (15% each day)
– Ensure clarity in your answers – no credit will be given for vague
answers
– Homework is primarily the GSA’s responsibility
– Solutions/theory will be posted on the web
• Check webpage for everything!
– You are responsible for checking the webpage for updates

7
Computer Languages
• Machine language
• Only language computer directly understands
• Defined by hardware design
– Machine-dependent
• Generally consist of strings of numbers
– Ultimately 0s and 1s
• Instruct computers to perform elementary operations
– One at a time
• Cumbersome for humans
• Example:
+1300042774
+1400593419
+1200274027

8
Computer Languages
• Assembly language
• English-like abbreviations representing elementary computer
operations
• Clearer to humans
• Incomprehensible to computers
– Translator programs (assemblers)
• Convert to machine language
• Example:
LOAD BASEPAY
ADD OVERPAY
STORE GROSSPAY

9
Computer Languages
• High-level languages
• Similar to everyday English, use common mathematical
notations
• Single statements accomplish substantial tasks
– Assembly language requires many instructions to
accomplish simple tasks
• Translator programs (compilers)
– Convert to machine language
• Interpreter programs
– Directly execute high-level language programs
• Example:
grossPay = basePay + overTimePay

10
History of C and C++
• History of C
– Evolved from two other programming languages
• BCPL and B
– “Typeless” languages
– Dennis Ritchie (Bell Laboratories)
• Added data typing, other features
– Development language of UNIX
– Hardware independent
• Portable programs
– 1989: ANSI standard
– 1990: ANSI and ISO standard published
• ANSI/ISO 9899: 1990

11
History of C and C++
• History of C++
– Extension of C
– Early 1980s: Bjarne Stroustrup (Bell Laboratories)
– Provides capabilities for object-oriented programming
• Objects: reusable software components
– Model items in real world
• Object-oriented programs
– Easy to understand, correct and modify
– Hybrid language
• C-like style
• Object-oriented style
• Both

12
C++ Standard Library
• C++ programs
– Built from pieces called classes and functions
• C++ standard library
– Rich collections of existing classes and functions
• “Building block approach” to creating programs
– “Software reuse”

13
Java
• Java
– 1991: Sun Microsystems
• Green project
– 1995: Sun Microsystems
• Formally announced Java at trade show
– Web pages with dynamic and interactive content
– Develop large-scale enterprise applications
– Enhance functionality of web servers
– Provide applications for consumer devices
• Cell phones, pagers, personal digital assistants, …

14
Structured Programming
• Structured programming (1960s)

– Disciplined approach to writing programs
– Clear, easy to test and debug, and easy to modify
• Pascal
– 1971: Niklaus Wirth
• Ada
– 1970s - early 1980s: US Department of Defense (DoD)
– Multitasking
• Programmer can specify many activities to run in parallel

15
The Key Software Trend: Object Technology
• Objects
– Reusable software components that model real world items
– Meaningful software units
• Date objects, time objects, paycheck objects, invoice objects, audio
objects, video objects, file objects, record objects, etc.
• Any noun can be represented as an object
– More understandable, better organized and easier to maintain than
procedural programming
– Favor modularity
• Software reuse
– Libraries
• MFC (Microsoft Foundation Classes)
• Rogue Wave

16
Basics of a Typical C++ Environment
• C++ systems
– Program-development environment
– Language
– C++ Standard Library
• C++ program names extensions
– .cpp
– .cxx
– .cc
– .C

17
Program is created in
Phases of C++ Programs: Editor Disk the editor and stored
on disk.
1. Edit Preprocessor Disk Preprocessor program
processes the code.
2. Preprocess Compiler creates
Compiler Disk object code and stores
3. Compile it on disk.
Linker links the object
4. Link Linker Disk code with the libraries,
creates an executable
file and stores it on disk
5. Load Primary
Memory
Loader
6. Execute Loader puts program
in memory.
Disk ..
..
..
Primary
Memory
CPU
CPU takes each
instruction and
executes it, possibly
storing new data
values as the program
..
..
..
executes.
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• Common Input/output functions

– cin
• Standard input stream
• Normally keyboard
– cout
• Standard output stream
• Normally computer screen
– cerr
• Standard error stream
• Display error messages

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A Simple Program: Printing a Line of Text
• Before writing the programs

– Comments
• Document programs
• Improve program readability
• Ignored by compiler
• Single-line comment
– Use C’s comment /* .. */ OR Begin with // or
– Preprocessor directives
• Processed by preprocessor before compiling
• Begin with #

2
1 // Fig. 1.2: fig01_02.cpp
2 // A first program in C++.
Single-line comments. Outline 0
Function main returns an
3 #include <iostream>
4 integer
Left brace { begins Preprocessor
value. function directive to
fig01_02.cpp
body. program
5 // function main begins Function include input/output Statements
main appears
execution stream end with a(1 of 1)
6 int main() header file <iostream>.
exactly once in every C++ semicolon ;.
7 { program..
8 std::cout << "Welcome to C++!\n"; fig01_02.cpp
9 Corresponding right brace } output (1 of 1)
10 return 0; // ends function
indicate thatbody.
program ended successfully
11 Stream
Name cout insertion
belongs to operator.
12 } // end function main namespace std.
Keyword return is one of

Welcome to C++!
several means to exit
function; value 0 indicates
program terminated
successfully.
 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
21
• Standard output stream object

– std::cout
– “Connected” to screen
– <<
• Stream insertion operator
• Value to right (right operand) inserted into output stream
• Namespace
– std:: specifies using name that belongs to “namespace”
std
– std:: removed through use of using statements
• Escape characters
– \
– Indicates “special” character output

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Escape Sequence Description
\n Newline. Position the screen cursor to the

beginning of the next line.
\t Horizontal tab. Move the screen cursor to the next
tab stop.
\r Carriage return. Position the screen cursor to the
beginning of the current line; do not advance to the
next line.
\a Alert. Sound the system bell.
\\ Backslash. Used to print a backslash character.
\" Double quote. Used to print a double quote
character.

Another Simple Program: Adding Two 23
Integers
• Variables
– Location in memory where value can be stored
– Common data types
• int - integer numbers
• char - characters
• double - floating point numbers
– Declare variables with name and data type before use
int integer1;
int integer2;
int sum;
– Can declare several variables of same type in one declaration
• Comma-separated list
int integer1, integer2, sum;

Another Simple Program: Adding Two 24
Integers
• Input stream object
– >> (stream extraction operator)
• Used with std::cin
• Waits for user to input value, then press Enter (Return) key
• Stores value in variable to right of operator
– Converts value to variable data type
• = (assignment operator)
– Assigns value to variable
– Binary operator (two operands)
– Example:
sum = variable1 + variable2;

2
1 // Fig. 1.6: fig01_06.cpp
2 // Addition program.
Outline 5
4
fig01_06.cpp
5 // function main begins program execution
(1 of 1)
6 int main()
7 { Declare integer variables.
8 int integer1; // first number to be input by user
9 int integer2; // second number to be input by user
10 int sum;
Use stream extraction
// variable in which sum will be stored
11 operator with standard input
12 stream to obtain
std::cout << "Enter first integer\n"; user input.
// prompt
13 std::cin >> integer1; // read an integer
14
15 std::cout << "Enter second integer\n"; // prompt
16 std::cin >> integer2; Calculations //
canread
be performed inStream
an integer output manipulator
statements: alternative for
17 lines 18 and 20: std::endl outputs a
18 sum = integer1 + integer2; // assign result to sum
19
newline, then “flushes output
std::cout << "Sum is " << integer1 + integer2 << std::endl;
20 std::cout << "Sum is " << sum << std::endl; // print sum buffer.”
21
22 return 0; // indicate that program ended successfully
23
24 } // end function main Concatenating, chaining or
cascading stream insertion
operations.

26
Memory Concepts
• Variable names
– Correspond to actual locations in computer's memory
– Every variable has name, type, size and value
– When new value placed into variable, overwrites previous
value
– std::cin >> integer1; integer1 45

– Assume user entered 45
integer1 45
– std::cin >> integer2; integer2 72
– Assume user entered 72

integer1 45
integer2 72
– sum = integer1 + integer2;
sum 117

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Arithmetic
• Arithmetic calculations
– * : Multiplication
– / : Division
• Integer division truncates remainder
– 7 / 5 evaluates to 1
– % : Modulus operator returns remainder
– 7 % 5 evaluates to 2
Operator(s) Operation(s) Order of evaluation (precedence)
() Parentheses Evaluated first. If the parentheses are nested, the

expression in the innermost pair is evaluated first. If
there are several pairs of parentheses “on the same level”
(i.e., not nested), they are evaluated left to right.
*, /, or % Multiplication Division Evaluated second. If there are several, they re
Modulus evaluated left to right.
+ or - Addition Evaluated last. If there are several, they are
Subtraction evaluated left to right.

28
Decision Making: Equality and Relational
Operators
• if structure
– Make decision based on truth or falsity of condition
• If condition met, body executed
• Else, body not executed
• Equality and relational operators
– Equality operators
• Same level of precedence
– Relational operators
• Same level of precedence
– Associate left to right
• using statements
– Eliminate use of std:: prefix
– Write cout instead of std::cout

29
Decision Making: Equality and Relational
Operators

3
1 // Fig. 1.14: fig01_14.cpp
2 // Using if statements, relational
Outline 0
3 // operators, and equality operators.
fig01_14.cpp
5
(1 of 2)
6 using std::cout; // program uses cout
7 using std::cin; // program uses cin using statements eliminate
8 using std::endl; // program uses endl need for std:: prefix.
9
10 // function main begins programDeclare variables.
execution
11 int main()
12 {
13 Can write
int num1; // first number read and
to becout cin
from user
14 withouttostd::
int num2; // second number be readprefix.
from user
15
16 cout << "Enter two integers, and I will tell you\n"
if structure compares values
17 << "the relationships they satisfy: ";
18 cin >> num1 >> num2;
of num1 and num2
// read two integers
to test for
If condition is true (i.e.,
19 equality. values are equal), execute this
20 if ( num1 == num2 )
if structure compares
statement.values
21 of num1
cout << num1 << " is equal to " << If condition
andnum2
num2 << to is true (i.e.,
test for
endl;
22 inequality. values are not equal), execute
23 if ( num1 != num2 ) this statement.
24 cout << num1 << " is not equal to " << num2 << endl;
25

3
26
27
if ( num1 < num2 )
cout << num1 << " is less than " << num2 << endl;
Outline 1
28
29 if ( num1 > num2 )
fig01_14.cpp
30 cout << num1 << " is greater than " << num2 << endl;
Statements may
(2 of 2) be split over
31
32 if ( num1 <= num2 )
several lines.
33 cout << num1 << " is less than or equal to " fig01_14.cpp
34 << num2 << endl; output (1 of 2)
35
36 if ( num1 >= num2 )
37 cout << num1 << " is greater than or equal to "
38 << num2 << endl;
39
40 return 0; // indicate that program ended successfully
41
42 } // end function main
Enter two integers, and I will tell you

the relationships they satisfy: 22 12
22 is not equal to 12
22 is greater than 12
22 is greater than or equal to 12

32
Algorithms
• Computing problems
– Solved by executing a series of actions in a specific order
• Algorithm a procedure determining
– Actions to be executed
– Order to be executed
– Example: recipe
• Program control
– Specifies the order in which statements are executed

33
Pseudocode
• Pseudocode
– Artificial, informal language used to develop algorithms
– Similar to everyday English
• Not executed on computers
– Used to think out program before coding
• Easy to convert into C++ program
– Only executable statements
• No need to declare variables

• Sequential execution 34
Control Structures
– Statements executed in order
• Transfer of control
– Next statement executed not next one in sequence
– Structured programming – “goto”-less programming
• 3 control structures to build any program
– Sequence structure
• Programs executed sequentially by default
– Selection structures
• if, if/else, switch
– Repetition structures
• while, do/while, for

35
Keywords
• C++ keywords
– Cannot be used as identifiers or variable names
C++ Keywords
Keywords common to the
C and C++ programming
languages
auto break case char const
continue default do double else
enum extern float for goto
if int long register return
short signed sizeof static struct
switch typedef union unsigned void
volatile while
C++ only keywords
asm bool catch class const_cast
delete dynamic_cast explicit false friend
inline mutable namespace new operator
private protected public reinterpret_cast
static_cast template this throw true
try typeid typename using virtual
wchar_t

36
Control Structures
• Flowchart
– Graphical representation of an algorithm
– Special-purpose symbols connected by arrows (flowlines)
– Rectangle symbol (action symbol)
• Any type of action
– Oval symbol
• Beginning or end of a program, or a section of code (circles)
• Single-entry/single-exit control structures
– Connect exit point of one to entry point of the next
– Control structure stacking

37
if Selection Structure
• Selection structure
– Choose among alternative courses of action
– Pseudocode example:
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “Passed”
– If the condition is true
• Print statement executed, program continues to next statement
– If the condition is false
• Print statement ignored, program continues
– Indenting makes programs easier to read
• C++ ignores whitespace characters (tabs, spaces, etc.)

38
• Translation into C++

If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “Passed”
if ( grade >= 60 )
cout << "Passed";
• Diamond symbol (decision symbol)
– Indicates decision is to be made
– Contains an expression that can be true or false
• Test condition, follow path
• if structure
– Single-entry/single-exit

39
• Flowchart of pseudocode statement
A decision can be made on

any expression.
true zero - false

grade >= 60 print “Passed”
nonzero - true
Example:
false
3 - 4 is true

40
if/else Selection Structure
• if
– Performs action if condition true
• if/else
– Different actions if conditions true or false
• Pseudocode
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
print “Passed”
else
print “Failed”
• C++ code
if ( grade >= 60 )
cout << "Passed";
else
cout << "Failed";
41
• Ternary conditional operator (?:)

– Three arguments (condition, value if true, value if false)
• Code could be written:
cout << ( grade >= 60 ? “Passed” : “Failed” );
Condition Value if true Value if false
false true
grade >= 60
print “Failed” print “Passed”

42
• Nested if/else structures

– One inside another, test for multiple cases
– Once condition met, other statements skipped
Print “A”
else
Print “B”
else
Print “C”
else
Print “D”
else
Print “F”

43
• Example
if ( grade >= 90 ) // 90 and above
cout << "A";
else if ( grade >= 80 ) // 80-89
cout << "B";
else if ( grade >= 70 ) // 70-79
cout << "C";
else if ( grade >= 60 ) // 60-69
cout << "D";
else // less than 60
cout << "F";

44
• Compound statement
– Set of statements within a pair of braces
if ( grade >= 60 )
cout << "Passed.\n";
else {
cout << "Failed.\n";
cout << "You must take this course again.\n";
}
– Without braces,
cout << "You must take this course again.\n";
always executed
• Block
– Set of statements within braces

45
while Repetition Structure
• Repetition structure
– Action repeated while some condition remains true
– Psuedocode
while there are more items on my shopping list
Purchase next item and cross it off my list
– while loop repeated until condition becomes false
• Example
int product = 2;
while ( product <= 1000 )
product = 2 * product;

46
while Repetition Structure
• Flowchart of while loop
true
product <= 1000 product = 2 * product
false

47
CounterControlled Repetition
• Counter-controlled repetition
– Loop repeated until counter reaches certain value
• Definite repetition
– Number of repetitions known
• Example
A class of ten students took a quiz. The grades (integers in
the range 0 to 100) for this quiz are available to you.
Determine the class average on the quiz.

4
1 // Fig. 2.7: fig02_07.cpp
2 // Class average program with counter-controlled repetition.
Outline 8
4
fig02_07.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 2)
6 using std::cin;
7 using std::endl;
8
10 int main()
11 {
12 int total; // sum of grades input by user
13 int gradeCounter; // number of grade to be entered next
14 int grade; // grade value
15 int average; // average of grades
16
17 // initialization phase
18 total = 0; // initialize total
19 gradeCounter = 1; // initialize loop counter
20

4
21
22
// processing phase
while ( gradeCounter <= 10 ) { // loop 10 times
Outline 9
23 cout << "Enter grade: "; // prompt for input
24 cin >> grade; // read grade from user
fig02_07.cpp
25 total = total + grade; // add grade to total
(2 of 2)
26 gradeCounter = gradeCounter + 1; // increment counter
27 }
28 fig02_07.cpp
29 // termination phase output (1 of 1)
30 average = total / 10; // integer division
31
32 // display result
33 cout << "Class average is " << average << endl;
The counter gets incremented each
34
time the loop executes.
35 return 0; // indicate program ended successfully
36
Eventually, the counter causes the
37 } // end function main loop to end.
Enter grade: 98
Enter grade: 76
Enter grade: 71
Enter grade: 87
Enter grade: 83
Enter grade: 90
Enter grade: 57
Enter grade: 79
Enter grade: 82
Enter grade: 94
Class average is 81  2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.
50
SentinelControlled Repetition
• Suppose problem becomes:

Develop a class-averaging program that will process an
arbitrary number of grades each time the program is run
– Unknown number of students
– How will program know when to end?
• Sentinel value
– Indicates “end of data entry”
– Loop ends when sentinel input
– Sentinel chosen so it cannot be confused with regular input
• -1 in this case

5
1 // Fig. 2.9: fig02_09.cpp
2 // Class average program with sentinel-controlled repetition.
Outline 1
4
fig02_09.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 3)
6 using std::cin;
7 using std::endl;
8 using std::fixed;
9
10 #include <iomanip> // parameterized stream manipulators
11
12 using std::setprecision; // sets numeric output precision
13
15 int main()
16 { Data type double used to represent
17 int total; // sum of grades decimal numbers.
18 int gradeCounter; // number of grades entered
19 int grade; // grade value
20
21 double average; // number with decimal point for average
22
23 // initialization phase
24 total = 0; // initialize total
25 gradeCounter = 0; // initialize loop counter

5
26
27 // processing phase
Outline 2
28 // get first grade from user
29 cout << "Enter grade, -1 to end: "; // prompt for input
fig02_09.cpp
30 cin >> grade; // read grade from user
(2 of 3)
31
32 // loop until sentinel value read from user
33 while ( grade != -1 )static_cast<double>()
{ treats total as a
34 double temporarily
total = total + grade; (casting).
// add grade to total
35 gradeCounter = gradeCounter + 1; // increment counter
36 Required because dividing two integers truncates the
37 cout << "Enter grade, -1 to end: "; // prompt for input
remainder.
38 cin >> grade; // read next grade
39
gradeCounter is an int, but it gets promoted to
40 } // end while
41
double.
42 // termination phase
43 // if user entered at least one grade ...
44 if ( gradeCounter != 0 ) {
45
46 // calculate average of all grades entered
47 average = static_cast< double >( total ) / gradeCounter;
48

5
49
50
// display average with two digits of precision
cout << "Class average is " << setprecision( 2 )
Outline 3
51 << fixed << average << endl;
52
fig02_09.cpp
53 } // end if part of if/else
(3 of 3)
54
55 else // if no grades were entered, output appropriate message
56 cout << "No grades were entered" << endl; fig02_09.cpp
57 output (1 of 1)
58 return 0; // indicate program ended successfully
59
setprecision(2)prints two digits past
Enter grade, -1 to end: 75 decimal point (rounded to fit precision).
Enter grade, -1 to end: 94
Programs that use this must include <iomanip>
Enter grade, -1 to end: 70 fixed forces output to print
Enter grade, -1 to end: 64 in fixed point format (not
scientific notation). Also,
forces trailing zeros and
Enter grade, -1 to end: -1
Class average is 82.50
decimal point to print.
Include <iostream>

54
switch MultipleSelection Structure
• switch
– Test variable for multiple values
– Series of case labels and optional default case
switch ( variable ) {
case value1: // taken if variable == value1
statements
break; // necessary to exit switch
case value2:
case value3: // taken if variable == value2 or == value3
statements
break;
default: // taken if none matches

statements
break;
}

55
true
case a case a action(s) break
false
true
case b case b action(s) break
false
.
.
.
true
case z case z action(s) break
false
default action(s)

56
• Example upcoming
– Program to read grades (A-F)
– Display number of each grade entered
• Details about characters
– Single characters typically stored in a char data type
• char a 1-byte integer, so chars can be stored as ints
– Can treat character as int or char
• 97 is the numerical representation of lowercase ‘a’ (ASCII)
• Use single quotes to get numerical representation of character
cout << "The character (" << 'a' << ") has the value "
<< static_cast< int > ( 'a' ) << endl;

Prints
The character (a) has the value 97
5
1 // Fig. 2.22: fig02_22.cpp
2 // Counting letter grades.
Outline 7
4
fig02_22.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 4)
6 using std::cin;
7 using std::endl;
8
10 int main()
11 {
12 int grade; // one grade
13 int aCount = 0; // number of As
14 int bCount = 0; // number of Bs
15 int cCount = 0; // number of Cs
16 int dCount = 0; // number of Ds
17 int fCount = 0; // number of Fs
18
19 cout << "Enter the letter grades." << endl
20 << "Enter the EOF character to end input." << endl;
21

5
22
23
// loop until user types end-of-file key sequence
while ( ( grade = cin.get() ) != EOF ) { break causes switch to end and
Outline 8
24 the program continues with the first
25 // determine which grade was input statement after the switch structure.
fig02_22.cpp
26 switch ( grade ) { // switch structure nested in while
(2 of 4)
27
28 case 'A': // grade was uppercase A
cin.get() uses dot notation
29 case 'a': // or lowercase a
30 ++aCount; // increment aCount
(explained chapter 6). This
31 break; // necessary to exit switch function gets 1 character from the
32
Assignment statements have a keyboard (after Enter pressed), and
33 case 'B': value,was
// grade which is the same
uppercase B as it is assigned to grade.
34 case 'b': thelowercase
// or variable onb the left of the
35 ++bCount; =. The value
// increment of this statement
bCount cin.get() returns EOF (end-of-
36 break;
Compares grade (an int) to is theswitch
// exit same as the value file) after the EOF character is
37 returned by cin.get().
the numericalcase
representations input, to indicate the end of data.
38 'C': // grade was uppercase C
of A and a. case 'c': EOF may be ctrl-d or ctrl-z,
39 // or lowercase c
This can also be used to depending on your OS.
40 ++cCount; // increment cCount
initialize multiple variables:
41 break; // exit switch
42
a = b = c = 0;

5
43
44
case 'D':
case 'd':
//
//
grade was uppercase D
or lowercase d
Outline 9
45 ++dCount; // increment dCount
fig02_22.cpp
47 This test is necessary because (3 of 4)
48 case 'F': // grade was Enter is pressed
uppercase F after each
49 case 'f': // or lowercase f
letter grade is input. This adds
50 ++fCount; // increment fCount
a newline character that must
be removed. Likewise, we
52
53 case '\n': //
want to ignore any
ignore newlines,
54 case '\t': // tabs, whitespace.
55 case ' ': // and spaces in input
56 break; Notice the default
// exit switch statement, which
57 catches all other cases.
58 default: // catch all other characters
59 cout << "Incorrect letter grade entered."
60 << " Enter a new grade." << endl;
61 break; // optional; will exit switch anyway
62
63 } // end switch
64
65 } // end while
66

6
67
68
// output summary of results
cout << "\n\nTotals for each letter grade are:"
Outline 0
69 << "\nA: " << aCount // display number of A grades
70 << "\nB: " << bCount // display number of B grades
fig02_22.cpp
71 << "\nC: " << cCount // display number of C grades
(4 of 4)
72 << "\nD: " << dCount // display number of D grades
73 << "\nF: " << fCount // display number of F grades
74 << endl;
75
76 return 0; // indicate successful termination
77

61
do/while Repetition Structure
• Similar to while structure

– Makes loop continuation test at end, not beginning
– Loop body executes at least once
• Format
do {
statement
action(s)
} while ( condition );
true
condition
false

6
1 // Fig. 2.24: fig02_24.cpp
2 // Using the do/while repetition structure.
Outline 2
4
fig02_24.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 1)
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution fig02_24.cpp
9 int main() output (1 of 1)
10 {
11 int counter = 1; // initialize counter
12 Notice the preincrement in
13 do { loop-continuation test.
14 cout << counter << " "; // display counter
15 } while ( ++counter <= 10 ); // end do/while
16
17 cout << endl;
18
19 return 0; // indicate successful termination
20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

63
break and continue Statements
• break statement
– Immediate exit from while, for, do/while, switch
– Program continues with first statement after structure
• Common uses
– Escape early from a loop
– Skip the remainder of switch

6
1 // Fig. 2.26: fig02_26.cpp
2 // Using the break statement in a for structure.
Outline 4
4
fig02_26.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 2)
6 using std::endl;
7
9 int main()
10 {
11
12 int x; // x declared here so it can be used after the loop
13
14 // loop 10 times
15 for ( x = 1; x <= 10; x++ ) { Exits for structure when
16 break executed.
17 // if x is 5, terminate loop
18 if ( x == 5 )
19 break; // break loop only if x is 5
20
21 cout << x << " "; // display value of x
22
23 } // end for
24
25 cout << "\nBroke out of loop when x became " << x << endl;

65
Logical Operators
• Used as conditions in loops, if statements

• && (logical AND)
– true if both conditions are true
if ( gender == 1 && age >= 65 )
++seniorFemales;
• || (logical OR)
– true if either of condition is true
if ( semesterAverage >= 90 || finalExam >= 90 )
cout << "Student grade is A" << endl;

66
Logical Operators
• ! (logical NOT, logical negation)

– Returns true when its condition is false, & vice versa
if ( !( grade == sentinelValue ) )
cout << "The next grade is " << grade << endl;
Alternative:
if ( grade != sentinelValue )
cout << "The next grade is " << grade << endl;

67
Confusing Equality (==) and Assignment (=)
Operators
• Common error
– Does not typically cause syntax errors
• Aspects of problem
– Expressions that have a value can be used for decision
• Zero = false, nonzero = true
– Assignment statements produce a value (the value to be
assigned)

68
Operators
• Example
if ( payCode == 4 )
cout << "You get a bonus!" << endl;
– If paycode is 4, bonus given
• If == was replaced with =

if ( payCode = 4 )
cout << "You get a bonus!" << endl;
– Paycode set to 4 (no matter what it was before)
– Statement is true (since 4 is non-zero)
– Bonus given in every case

69
Operators
• Lvalues
– Expressions that can appear on left side of equation
– Can be changed (I.e., variables)
x = 4;
• Rvalues
– Only appear on right side of equation
– Constants, such as numbers (i.e. cannot write 4 = x;)
• Lvalues can be used as rvalues, but not vice versa

70
StructuredProgramming Summary
• Structured programming
– Programs easier to understand, test, debug and modify
• Rules for structured programming
– Only use single-entry/single-exit control structures
– Rules
1) Begin with the “simplest flowchart”
2) Any rectangle (action) can be replaced by two rectangles
(actions) in sequence
3) Any rectangle (action) can be replaced by any control
structure (sequence, if, if/else, switch, while, do/while or for)
4) Rules 2 and 3 can be applied in any order and multiple times

71
Representation of Rule 3 (replacing any rectangle with a control structure)
Rule 3
Rule 3 Rule 3

72
• All programs broken down into

– Sequence
– Selection
• if, if/else, or switch
• Any selection can be rewritten as an if statement
– Repetition
• while, do/while or for
• Any repetition structure can be rewritten as a while
statement

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1

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• Quiz 10% (in the beginning of the class; on

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• Your work MUST be your own

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• Your work MUST be your own

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• Structured programming (1960s)

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• Common Input/output functions

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• Before writing the programs

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Keyword return is one of

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• Standard output stream object

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Escape Sequence Description

\n Newline. Position the screen cursor to the

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– std::cin >> integer1; integer1 45

– std::cin >> integer2; integer2 72

– Assume user entered 72

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() Parentheses Evaluated first. If the parentheses are nested, the

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Enter two integers, and I will tell you

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• Translation into C++

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• Flowchart of pseudocode statement

A decision can be made on

true zero - false

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