Methods of Proof

CS 202
Rosen section 1.5
Aaron Bloomfield

1
 In this slide set…
Rules of inference for propositions

Rules of inference for quantified

statements

Ten methods of proof

2
Proof methods in this slide set
Logical equivalences Ten proof methods in section 1.5:
 via truth tables  Direct proofs
 via logical equivalences  Indirect proofs
Set equivalences
 Vacuous proofs
 Trivial proofs
 via membership tables  Proof by contradiction
 via set identities  Proof by cases
 via mutual subset proof  Proofs of equivalence
 via set builder notation and  Existence proofs
logical equivalences Constructive
Rules of inference Non-constructive
 for propositions  Uniqueness proofs
 for quantified statements  Counterexamples
Induction
 Weak mathematical induction
Pigeonhole principle  Strong mathematical induction
Combinatorial proofs  Structural induction

3
 Modus Ponens
Consider (p  (p→q)) → q

p q p→q p(p→q)) (p(p→q)) → q

p
T T T T T
pq
T F F F T
q
F T T F T
F F T F T

4
 Modus Ponens example
Assume you are given the following two
statements:
p
 “you are in this class”
 “if you are in this class, you will get a grade” pq
q
Let p = “you are in this class”
Let q = “you will get a grade”

By Modus Ponens, you can conclude that you

will get a grade
5
 Modus Tollens
Assume that we know: ¬q and p → q
 Recall that p → q = ¬q → ¬p
Thus, we know ¬q and ¬q → ¬p
We can conclude ¬p
q
pq
 p

6
 Modus Tollens example
Assume you are given the following two
statements:
q
 “you will not get a grade”
 “if you are in this class, you will get a grade” pq
 p
Let p = “you are in this class”
Let q = “you will get a grade”

By Modus Tollens, you can conclude that you

are not in this class
7
 Quick survey
 I feel I understand moduls ponens
and modus tollens
a) Very well
b) With some review, I’ll be good
c) Not really
d) Not at all

8
 Addition & Simplification
Addition: If you know
that p is true, then p  q p
will ALWAYS be true pq

Simplification: If p  q is
true, then p will pq
ALWAYS be true p

9
 Example of proof
Example 6 of Rosen, section 1.5
We have the hypotheses:
 “It is not sunny this afternoon and it ¬p  q
p yesterday””
is colder than yesterday
q  “We will go swimming only if it is r→p
sunny
sunny””
r
 “If we do not go swimming,
swimming, then we ¬r → s
s trip””
will take a canoe trip
t  “If we take a canoe trip,
trip, then we will s→t
be home by sunset”
sunset”
Does this imply that ““we
we will be t
sunset”?
home by sunset ”?
10
 Example of proof
1. ¬p  q 1st hypothesis
2. ¬p Simplification using step 1
3. r→p 2nd hypothesis
4. ¬r Modus tollens using steps 2 & 3
5. ¬r → s 3rd hypothesis
6. s Modus ponens using steps 4 & 5
7. s→t 4th hypothesis
8. t Modus ponens using steps 6 & 7
p q
pq pq pq
p q  p11
 So what did we show?
We showed that:
 [(¬p  q)  (r → p)  (¬r → s)  (s → t)] → t
 That when the 4 hypotheses are true, then the
implication is true
 In other words, we showed the above is a tautology!

To show this, enter the following into the truth

table generator at
http://sciris.shu.edu/~borowski/Truth/:
((~P ^ Q) ^ (R => P) ^ (~R => S) ^ (S => T)) => T
12
 More rules of inference
Conjunction: if p and q are true p
separately, then pq is true q
pq pq
Disjunctive syllogism: If pq is
p
true, and p is false, then q must
be true q
pq
Resolution: If pq is true, and p  r
¬pr is true, then qr must be true
q  r
pq
Hypothetical syllogism: If p→q is qr
true, and q→r is true, then p→r
must be true pr
13
 Example of proof
Rosen, section 1.5, question 4
Given the hypotheses:
(¬r  ¬f) →
 “If it does not rain or if it is not
(s  l)
foggy, then the sailing race will
be held and the lifesaving
demonstration will go on”
 “If the sailing race is held, then s→t
the trophy will be awarded”
 “The trophy was not awarded” ¬t
r
Can you conclude: “It rained”? 14
 Example of proof
1. ¬t 3rd hypothesis
2. s→t 2nd hypothesis
3. ¬s Modus tollens using steps 2 & 3
4. (¬r¬f)→(sl) 1st hypothesis
5. ¬(sl)→¬(¬r¬f) Contrapositive of step 4
6. (¬s¬l)→(rf) DeMorgan’s law and double negation law
7. ¬s¬l Addition from step 3
8. rf Modus ponens using steps 6 & 7
9. r Simplification using step 8
p q
pq p pq pq
q pq p 15  p
 Quick survey
 I feel I understand that proof…
a) Very well
b) With some review, I’ll be good
c) Not really
d) Not at all

16
 Fallacy of
Modus Badus affirming the
conclusion
Consider the following: q q
pq  q  p
p p
Is this true?
p q p→q q(p→q)) (q(p→q)) → p
T T T T T
Not a
valid
T F F F T
rule!
F T T T F
F F T F T
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 Modus Badus example
Assume you are given the following two
statements: q
 “you will get a grade”
pq
 “if you are in this class, you will get a grade”
p

Let p = “you are in this class”

Let q = “you will get a grade”

You CANNOT conclude that you are in this class

 You could be getting a grade for another class
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 Fallacy of
Modus Badus denying the
hypothesis
Consider the following: p
pq
 q
Is this true?
p q p→q ¬p(p→q)) (¬p(p→q)) → ¬q
Not a
T T T F T
valid
T F F F T
rule!
F T T T F
F F T T T
19
 Modus Badus example
Assume you are given the following two
statements:
p
 “you are not in this class”
 “if you are in this class, you will get a grade” pq
 q
Let p = “you are in this class”
Let q = “you will get a grade”

You CANNOT conclude that you will not get a

grade
 You could be getting a grade for another class
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 Quick survey
 I feel I understand rules of inference
for Boolean propositions…
a) Very well
b) With some review, I’ll be good
c) Not really
d) Not at all

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Just in time for Valentine’s Day…

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 Bittersweets: Dejected sayings
 I MISS MY EX  ASYLUM BOUND
 PEAKED AT 17  DIGNITY FREE
 MAIL ORDER  PROG FAN
 TABLE FOR 1  STATIC CLING
 I CRY ON Q  WE HAD PLANS
 U C MY BLOG?  XANADU 2NITE
 REJECT PILE  SETTLE 4LESS
 PILLOW HUGGIN  NOT AGAIN
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Bittersweets: Dysfunctional sayings
 RUMORS TRUE  PAROLE IS UP!
 PRENUP OKAY?  BE MY YOKO
 HE CAN LISTEN  U+ME=GRIEF
 GAME ON TV  I WANT HALF
 CALL A 900#  RETURN 2 PIT
 P.S. I LUV ME  NOT MY MOMMY
 DO MY DISHES  BE MY PRISON
 UWATCH CMT  C THAT DOOR?
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 What we have shown
Rules of inference for propositions

Next up: rules of inference for quantified

statements

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 Rules of inference for the
universal quantifier
Assume that we know that x P(x) is true
 Then we can conclude that P(c) is true
Here c stands for some specific constant
 This is called “universal instantiation”

Assume that we know that P(c) is true for

any value of c
 Then we can conclude that x P(x) is true
 This is called “universal generalization”
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 Rules of inference for the
existential quantifier
Assume that we know that x P(x) is true
 Then we can conclude that P(c) is true for
some value of c
 This is called “existential instantiation”

Assume that we know that P(c) is true for

some value of c
 Then we can conclude that x P(x) is true
 This is called “existential generalization”
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 Example of proof
Rosen, section 1.5, question 10a
Given the hypotheses:
 “Linda, a student in this class, owns C(Linda)
a red convertible.” R(Linda)
 “Everybody who owns a red
convertible has gotten at least one x (R(x)→T(x))
speeding ticket”
x (C(x)T(x))
Can you conclude: “Somebody in
this class has gotten a speeding
ticket”?

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 Example of proof
1. x (R(x)→T(x)) 3rd hypothesis
2. R(Linda) → T(Linda) Universal instantiation using step 1
3. R(Linda) 2nd hypothesis
4. T(Linda) Modes ponens using steps 2 & 3
5. C(Linda) 1st hypothesis
6. C(Linda)  T(Linda) Conjunction using steps 4 & 5
7. x (C(x)T(x)) Existential generalization using
step 6

Thus, we have shown that “Somebody in

this class has gotten a speeding ticket”
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 Example of proof
Rosen, section 1.5, question
10d
Given the hypotheses:
 “There is someone in this class x (C(x)F(x))
who has been to France”
x (F(x)→L(x))
 “Everyone who goes to France
visits the Louvre”
Can you conclude: “Someone
x (C(x)L(x))
in this class has visited the
Louvre”?
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 Example of proof
1. x (C(x)F(x)) 1st hypothesis
2. C(y)  F(y) Existential instantiation using step 1
3. F(y) Simplification using step 2
4. C(y) Simplification using step 2
5. x (F(x)→L(x)) 2nd hypothesis
6. F(y) → L(y) Universal instantiation using step 5
7. L(y) Modus ponens using steps 3 & 6
8. C(y)  L(y) Conjunction using steps 4 & 7
9. x (C(x)L(x)) Existential generalization using
step 8
Thus, we have shown that “Someone
in this class has visited the Louvre” 31
 How do you know which one to
use?
Experience!

In general, use quantifiers with statements

like “for all” or “there exists”
 Although the vacuous proof example on slide
40 is a contradiction

32
 Quick survey
 I feel I understand rules of inference
for quantified statements…
a) Very well
b) With some review, I’ll be good
c) Not really
d) Not at all

33
 Proof methods
We will discuss ten proof methods:
1. Direct proofs
2. Indirect proofs
3. Vacuous proofs
4. Trivial proofs
5. Proof by contradiction
6. Proof by cases
7. Proofs of equivalence
8. Existence proofs
9. Uniqueness proofs
10. Counterexamples

34
 Direct proofs
Consider an implication: p→q
 If p is false, then the implication is always true
 Thus, show that if p is true, then q is true

To perform a direct proof, assume that p is

true, and show that q must therefore be
true

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 Direct proof example
Rosen, section 1.5, question 20
 Show that the square of an even number is an
even number
 Rephrased: if n is even, then n2 is even

Assume n is even
 Thus, n = 2k, for some k (definition of even
numbers)
 n2 = (2k)2 = 4k2 = 2(2k2)
 As n2 is 2 times an integer, n2 is thus even
36
 Quick survey
 These quick surveys are really
getting on my nerves…
a) They’re great - keep ‘em coming!
b) They’re fine
c) A bit tedious
d) Enough already! Stop!

37
 Indirect proofs
Consider an implication: p→q
 It’s contrapositive is ¬q→¬p
Is logically equivalent to the original implication!
 If the antecedent (¬q) is false, then the
contrapositive is always true
 Thus, show that if ¬q is true, then ¬p is true

To perform an indirect proof, do a direct

proof on the contrapositive
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 Indirect proof example
If n2 is an odd integer then n is an odd integer

Prove the contrapositive: If n is an even integer,

then n2 is an even integer

Proof: n=2k for some integer k (definition of even

numbers)
n2 = (2k)2 = 4k2 = 2(2k2)
Since n2 is 2 times an integer, it is even
40
 Which to use
When do you use a direct proof versus an
indirect proof?

If it’s not clear from the problem, try direct

first, then indirect second
 If indirect fails, try the other proofs

41
 Example of which to use
Rosen, section 1.5, question 21
 Prove that if n is an integer and n3+5 is odd, then n is
even

Via direct proof

 n3+5 = 2k+1 for some integer k (definition of odd
numbers)
 n3 =3 2k+6
 n  2k  6
 Umm…

So direct proof didn’t work out. Next up: indirect

proof
42
 Example of which to use
Rosen, section 1.5, question 21 (a)
 Prove that if n is an integer and n3+5 is odd, then n is
even

Via indirect proof

 Contrapositive: If n is odd, then n3+5 is even
 Assume n is odd, and show that n3+5 is even
 n=2k+1 for some integer k (definition of odd numbers)
 n3+5 = (2k+1)3+5 = 8k3+12k2+6k+6 = 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3)
 As 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3) is 2 times an integer, it is even
43
 Quick survey
 I feel I understand direct proofs and
indirect proofs…
a) Very well
b) With some review, I’ll be good
c) Not really
d) Not at all

44
 Proof by contradiction
Given a statement p, assume it is false
 Assume ¬p

Prove that ¬p cannot occur

 A contradiction exists

Given a statement of the form p→q

 To assume it’s false, you only have to consider the
case where p is true and q is false

45
Proof by contradiction example 1
Theorem (by Euclid): There are infinitely many
prime numbers.

Proof. Assume there are a finite number of primes

List them as follows: p1, p2 …, pn.
Consider the number q = p1p2 … pn + 1
 This number is not divisible by any of the listed primes
If we divided pi into q, there would result a remainder of 1
 We must conclude that q is a prime number, not among
the primes listed above
This contradicts our assumption that all primes are in the list
p1, p2 …, pn.
46
Proof by contradiction example 2
Rosen, section 1.5, question 21 (b)
 Prove that if n is an integer and n3+5 is odd, then n is even
 Rephrased: If n3+5 is odd, then n is even

Assume p is true and q is false

 Assume that n3+5 is odd, and n is odd
n=2k+1 for some integer k (definition of odd numbers)
n3+5 = (2k+1)3+5 = 8k3+12k2+6k+6 = 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3)
As 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3) is 2 times an integer, it must be
even
Contradiction!
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 A note on that problem…
Rosen, section 1.5, question 21
 Prove that if n is an integer and n3+5 is odd, then n is even
 Here, our implication is: If n3+5 is odd, then n is even

The indirect proof proved the contrapositive: ¬q → ¬p

 I.e., If n is odd, then n3+5 is even
The proof by contradiction assumed that the implication
was false, and showed a contradiction
 If we assume p and ¬q, we can show that implies q
 The contradiction is q and ¬q

Note that both used similar steps, but are different

means of proving the implication
48
 How the book explains
proof by contradiction
A very poor explanation, IMHO

Suppose q is a contradiction (i.e. is always false)

Show that ¬p→q is true
 Since the consequence is false, the antecedent must be
false
 Thus, p must be true
Find a contradiction, such as (r¬r), to represent q
Thus, you are showing that ¬p→(r¬r)
 Or that assuming p is false leads to a contradiction
49
A note on proofs by contradiction
You can DISPROVE something by using a proof
by contradiction
 You are finding an example to show that something is
not true

You cannot PROVE something by example

Example: prove or disprove that all numbers are

even
 Proof by contradiction: 1 is not even
 (Invalid) proof by example: 2 is even

50
 Quick survey
 I feel I understand proof by
contradiction…
a) Very well
b) With some review, I’ll be good
c) Not really
d) Not at all

51
 Vacuous proofs
Consider an implication: p→q

If it can be shown that p is false, then the

implication is always true
 By definition of an implication

Note that you are showing that the

antecedent is false
52
 Vacuous proof example
Consider the statement:
 All criminology majors in CS 202 are female
 Rephrased: If you are a criminology major and
you are in CS 202, then you are female
Could also use quantifiers!

Since there are no criminology majors in

this class, the antecedent is false, and the
implication is true

53
 Trivial proofs
Consider an implication: p→q

If it can be shown that q is true, then the

implication is always true
 By definition of an implication

Note that you are showing that the

conclusion is true
54
 Trivial proof example
Consider the statement:
 If you are tall and are in CS 202 then you are
a student

Since all people in CS 202 are students,

the implication is true regardless

55
 Proof by cases
Show a statement is true by showing all
possible cases are true

Thus, you are showing a statement of the

form:  p1  p2  ...  pn   q

is true by showing that:

  p1  p2  ...  pn   q    p1  q    p2  q   ...   pn  q  
56
 Proof by cases example
a a

Prove that b b
 Note that b ≠ 0
Cases:
 Case 1: a ≥ 0 and b > 0 a a a
 
Then |a| = a, |b| = b, and b b b
 Case 2: a ≥ 0 and b < 0 a a a a
  
Then |a| = a, |b| = -b, and b b b b
 Case 3: a < 0 and b > 0
a a a a
Then |a| = -a, |b| = b, and   
b b b b
 Case 4: a < 0 and b < 0 a a a a
Then |a| = -a, |b| = -b, and   
b b  b57 b
The think about proof by cases
Make sure you get ALL the cases
 The biggest mistake is to leave out some of
the cases

58
 Quick survey
 I feel I understand trivial and vacuous
proofs and proof by cases…
a) Very well
b) With some review, I’ll be good
c) Not really
d) Not at all

59
End of prepared slides

60
 Proofs of equivalences
This is showing the definition of a bi-
conditional

Given a statement of the form “p if and

only if q”
 Show it is true by showing (p→q)(q→p) is
true

61
Proofs of equivalence example
Rosen, section 1.5, question 40
 Show that m2=n2 if and only if m=n or m=-n
 Rephrased: (m2=n2) ↔ [(m=n)(m=-n)]
Need to prove two parts:
 [(m=n)(m=-n)] → (m2=n2)
Proof by cases!
Case 1: (m=n) → (m2=n2)
 (m)2 = m2, and (n)2 = n2, so this case is proven
Case 2: (m=-n) → (m2=n2)
 (m)2 = m2, and (-n)2 = n2, so this case is proven
 (m2=n2) → [(m=n)(m=-n)]
Subtract n2 from both sides to get m2-n2=0
Factor to get (m+n)(m-n) = 0
Since that equals zero, one of the factors must be zero
Thus, either m+n=0 (which means m=n)
Or m-n=0 (which means m=-n) 62
 Existence proofs
Given a statement: x P(x)
We only have to show that a P(c) exists
for some value of c

Two types:
 Constructive: Find a specific value of c for
which P(c) exists
 Nonconstructive: Show that such a c exists,
but don’t actually find it
Assume it does not exist, and show a contradiction
63
 Constructive existence proof
example
Show that a square exists that is the sum
of two other squares
 Proof: 32 + 42 = 52

Show that a cube exists that is the sum of

three other cubes
 Proof: 33 + 43 + 53 = 63

64
Non-constructive existence proof
example
Rosen, section 1.5, question 50
Prove that either 2*10500+15 or 2*10500+16 is not a
perfect square
 A perfect square is a square of an integer
 Rephrased: Show that a non-perfect square exists in the set
{2*10500+15, 2*10500+16}

Proof: The only two perfect squares that differ by 1 are 0

and 1
 Thus, any other numbers that differ by 1 cannot both be perfect
squares
 Thus, a non-perfect square must exist in any set that contains
two numbers that differ by 1
 Note that we didn’t specify which one it was!
65
 Uniqueness proofs
A theorem may state that only one such
value exists

To prove this, you need to show:

 Existence: that such a value does indeed
exist
Either via a constructive or non-constructive
existence proof
 Uniqueness: that there is only one such value
66
 Uniqueness proof example
If the real number equation 5x+3=a has a solution
then it is unique

Existence
 We can manipulate 5x+3=a to yield x=(a-3)/5
 Is this constructive or non-constructive?

Uniqueness
 If there are two such numbers, then they would fulfill
the following: a = 5x+3 = 5y+3
 We can manipulate this to yield that x = y
Thus, the one solution is unique! 67
 Counterexamples
Given a universally quantified statement, find a single
example which it is not true

Note that this is DISPROVING a UNIVERSAL statement

by a counterexample

x ¬R(x), where R(x) means “x has red hair”

 Find one person (in the domain) who has red hair

Every positive integer is the square of another integer

 The square root of 5 is 2.236, which is not an integer

68
 Mistakes in proofs
Modus Badus
 Fallacy of denying the hypothesis
 Fallacy of affirming the conclusion
Proving a universal by example
 You can only prove an existential by example!

69
 Quick survey
 I felt I understood the material in this
slide set…
a) Very well
b) With some review, I’ll be good
c) Not really
d) Not at all

70
 Quick survey
 The pace of the lecture for this
slide set was…
a) Fast
b) About right
c) A little slow
d) Too slow

71
 Quick survey
 How interesting was the material in
this slide set? Be honest!
a) Wow! That was SOOOOOO cool!
b) Somewhat interesting
c) Rather borting
d) Zzzzzzzzzzz

72