ORACLE SQL

Session 1
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 Objectives
• Introduction to Databases
• DBMS
• RDBMS
• Oracle
• SQL
• Data type
• Types of SQL(DRL,DDL, DML, DCL, TL)
• Writing Select Statement.

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 Introduction to Database
Database:
• A collection of all operational data where data redundancy is
minimized, concurrency access is achieved and dada
independence is achieved.
• Examples: Attendance Register, Telephone Directory.

Database Management System(DBMS):

• Set of programs to access the data.
• Acts as an interface between user and database.

Relational Database Management System(RDBMS):

• A collection of relation originally defined by tables.
• Example:Oracle

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 What is SQL?
• SQL is a language that all commercial RDBMS
implementations understand.
• SQL is a non-procedural language.
• SQL is used to communicate with server.

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 Data Types
• Char:-fixed length char string---char(len)
• Varchar2:-variable length char string---varchar2(len)
• Number:-decimal or float no---number(p,s)
• Date:-dates---date

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 Operators
• Arithmetic operators like +,-,*,/
• Logical operators: AND, OR,NOT
• Relational operators: =,<,>,<=,>=, !=,< >

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 Statements
• Data Retrieval Language(Select)
• Data Definition
Language(Create,Alter,Drop,Rename,Truncate)
• Data Manipulation Language(Insert,Update,Delete)
• Data Control language(Grant,Revoke)
• Data Transaction Language(Commit,Rollback,Savepoint)

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 Data Retrieval Language(DRL)
 Retrieve data from one or more tables or views

Syntax:
SELECT *|{[DISTINCT] column|expression [alias],...}
FROM table;

• Select identify what column

• From identify which table
Example:
column
Select * from emp;
Select sal*12 from emp;
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expression
 Selecting All Columns
SELECT *
FROM departments;

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 Selecting Specific Columns
SELECT department_id, location_id
FROM departments;

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 Writing SQL Statements
 SQL statements are not case sensitive.
 SQL statements can be on one or more lines.
 Keywords cannot be abbreviated or split
across lines.

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 Arithmetic Expressions
Create expressions with number and date data by using
arithmetic operators.

Operator Description

+ Add

- Subtract

* Multiply

/ Divide

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 Using Arithmetic Operators
SELECT last_name, salary, salary + 300
FROM employees;

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 Operator Precedence
_
/ +
*
 Multiplication and division take priority over addition
and subtraction.
 Operators of the same priority are evaluated from left to
right.
 Parentheses are used to force prioritized evaluation and
to clarify statements.

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 Operator Precedence
SELECT last_name, salary, 12*salary+100
FROM employees;

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 Using Parentheses
SELECT last_name, salary, 12*(salary+100)
FROM employees;

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 Defining a Null Value
 A null is a value that is unavailable, unassigned,
unknown, or inapplicable.
 A null is not the same as zero or a blank space.
SELECT last_name, job_id, salary, commission_pct
FROM employees;

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 Null Values
in Arithmetic Expressions
Arithmetic expressions containing a null value evaluate to
null.
SELECT last_name, 12*salary*commission_pct
FROM employees;

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 Defining a Column Alias
A column alias:
 Renames a column heading
 Is useful with calculations
 Immediately follows the column name - there can also
be the optional AS keyword between the column name
and alias
 Requires double quotation marks if it contains spaces or
special characters or is case sensitive

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 Using Column Aliases
SELECT last_name AS name, commission_pct comm
FROM employees;

SELECT last_name "Name", salary*12 "Annual Salary"

FROM employees;

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 Concatenation Operator
A concatenation operator:
 Concatenates columns or character strings to other
columns
 Is represented by two vertical bars (||)
 Creates a resultant column that is a character expression

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Using the Concatenation Operator

SELECT last_name||job_id AS "Employees"

FROM employees;

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 Literal Character Strings
 A literal is a character, a number, or a date included in
the SELECT list.
 Date and character literal values must be enclosed
within single quotation marks.
 Each character string is output once for each
row returned.

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Using Literal Character Strings

SELECT last_name ||' is a '||job_id

AS "Employee Details"
FROM employees;

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 Duplicate Rows
The default display of queries is all rows, including
duplicate rows.
SELECT department_id
FROM employees;

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 Eliminating Duplicate Rows
Eliminate duplicate rows by using the DISTINCT
keyword in the SELECT clause.
SELECT DISTINCT department_id
FROM employees;

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Limiting Rows Using a Selection
EMPLOYEES

“retrieve all
employees
in department 90”

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 Limiting the Rows Selected
 Restrict the rows returned by using the WHERE clause.
 The WHERE clause follows the FROM clause.

SELECT *|{[DISTINCT] column|expression [alias],...}

FROM table
[WHERE condition(s)];

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 Using the WHERE Clause

SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, department_id

FROM employees
WHERE department_id = 90 ;

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 Character Strings and Dates
 Character strings and date values are enclosed in single
quotation marks.
 Character values are case sensitive, and date values are
format sensitive.
 The default date format is DD-MON-RR.

SELECT last_name, job_id, department_id

FROM employees
WHERE last_name = 'Whalen';

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Comparison Conditions
Operator Meaning

= Equal to

> Greater than

>= Greater than or equal to

< Less than

<= Less than or equal to

<> Not equal to

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 Using Comparison Conditions

SELECT last_name, salary

FROM employees
WHERE salary <= 3000;

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Other Comparison Conditions
Operator Meaning

BETWEEN Between two values (inclusive),

...AND...

IN(set) Match any of a list of values

LIKE Match a character pattern

IS NULL Is a null value

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Using the BETWEEN Condition
Use the BETWEEN condition to display rows based on a
range of values.

SELECT last_name, salary

FROM employees
WHERE salary BETWEEN 2500 AND 3500;

Lower limit Upper limit

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 Using the IN Condition
Use the IN membership condition to test for values in a
list.

SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary, manager_id

FROM employees
WHERE manager_id IN (100, 101, 201);

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 Using the LIKE Condition
 Use the LIKE condition to perform wildcard searches
of valid search string values.
 Search conditions can contain either literal characters or
numbers:
◦ % denotes zero or many characters.
◦ _ denotes one character.

SELECT first_name
FROM employees
WHERE first_name LIKE 'S%';

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 Using the LIKE Condition
 You can combine pattern-matching characters.
SELECT last_name
FROM employees
WHERE last_name LIKE '_o%';

 You can use the ESCAPE identifier to search for the

actual % and _ symbols.

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 Using the NULL Conditions
 Test for nulls with the IS NULL operator.

SELECT last_name, manager_id

FROM employees
WHERE manager_id IS NULL;

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 Logical Conditions
Operator Meaning

AND Returns TRUE if both component

conditions are true
OR Returns TRUE if either component
condition is true

NOT Returns TRUE if the following

condition is false

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 Using the AND Operator
 AND requires both conditions to be true.

SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, salary

FROM employees
WHERE salary >=10000
AND job_id LIKE '%MAN%';

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 Using the OR Operator
 OR requires either conditions to be true.

SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, salary

FROM employees
WHERE salary >= 10000
OR job_id LIKE '%MAN%';

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 Using the NOT Operator
 NOT requires condition to be false.
SELECT last_name, job_id
FROM employees
WHERE job_id
NOT IN ('IT_PROG', 'ST_CLERK', 'SA_REP');

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 Rules of Precedence
Order Evaluated Operator
1 Arithmetic operators
2 Concatenation operator
3 Comparison conditions
4 IS [NOT] NULL, LIKE, [NOT] IN
5 [NOT] BETWEEN
6 NOT logical condition
7 AND logical condition
8 OR logical condition

 Override rules of precedence by using parentheses.

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 Rules of Precedence
SELECT last_name, job_id, salary
FROM employees
WHERE job_id = 'SA_REP'
OR job_id = 'AD_PRES'
AND salary > 15000;

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 Rules of Precedence
Use parenthesis to force priority

SELECT last_name, job_id, salary

FROM employees
WHERE (job_id = 'SA_REP'
OR job_id = 'AD_PRES')
AND salary > 15000;

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