Wireless LAN
Wireless LAN
Wireless LAN
WIRELESS NETWORKS
OBJECTIVES
To study about Wireless networks, protocol stack and standards.
Overview of UTMS Terrestrial Radio access network-UMTS Core network Architecture: 3G-MSC, 3G-SGSN, 3G-
GGSN, SMS-GMSC/SMS-IWMSC, Firewall, DNS/DHCP-High speed Downlink packet access (HSDPA)- LTE network
architecture and protocol.
UNIT V 4G NETWORKS
REFERENCES:
1. Erik Dahlman, Stefan Parkvall, Johan Skold and Per Beming, "3G Evolution HSPA and LTE for Mobile Broadband”, Second
Edition, Academic Press, 2008.
2. Anurag Kumar, D.Manjunath, Joy kuri, “Wireless Networking”, First Edition, Elsevier 2011.
3. Simon Haykin , Michael Moher, David Koilpillai, “Modern Wireless Communications”,
First Edition, Pearson Education 2013
UNIT I
WIRELESS LAN
OVERVIEW:
Introduction
WLAN technologies: Infrared, UHF narrowband, spread spectrum -
IEEE802.11: System architecture, protocol architecture, physical layer,
MAC layer, 802.11b, 802.11a
Hiper LAN: WATM, BRAN, HiperLAN2
Bluetooth: Architecture, Radio Layer, Baseband layer, Link manager
Protocol, security - IEEE802.16
WIMAX: Physical layer, MAC, Spectrum allocation for WIMAX
INTRODUCTION
Wireless means transmitting signals using radio waves as the medium
instead of wires.
Wireless technologies are used for tasks as simple as switching off the
television or as complex as supplying the sales force with information
from an automated enterprise application while in the field.
Now cordless keyboards, mice and cellular phones have become part of
our daily life.
Some of the inherent characteristics of wireless communications systems which
beyond their desk and conduct business from anywhere without having a wire
connectivity.
connected and be reachable, regardless of the location they are operating from.
comparison of cabled network. Initial setup cost could be a bit high but other
Roaming Services − Using a wireless network system, you can provide service any
POINT-TO-POINT BRIDGE
As you know, a bridge is used to connect two networks. A point-to-point
bridge interconnects two buildings having different networks. For example, a wireless
LAN bridge can interface with an Ethernet network directly to a particular access
point.
POINT-TO-MULTIPOINT BRIDGE
This topology is used to connect three or more LANs that may be located on different floors in a
building or across buildings
MESH OR AD HOC NETWORK
This network is an independent local area network that is not connected to a wired infrastructure
and in which all stations are connected directly to one another
WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES
Wireless technologies can be classified in different ways depending on their range. Each wireless
technology is designed to serve a specific usage segment. The requirements for each usage segment
are based on a variety of variables, including Bandwidth needs, Distance needs and Power.
Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN)
This network enables you to access the Internet via a wireless wide area network (WWAN) access
card and a PDA or laptop. These networks provide a very fast data speed compared with the data
rates of mobile telecommunications technology, and their range is also extensive. Cellular and mobile
networks based on CDMA and GSM are good examples of WWAN.
Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)
These networks are very similar to WWAN except their range is very limited.
WIRELESS LOCAL AREA NETWORK (WLAN)
This network enables you to access the Internet in localized hotspots via a wireless local area
network (WLAN) access card and a PDA or laptop.
It is a type of local area network that uses high-frequency radio waves rather than wires to
communicate between nodes.
These networks provide a very fast data speed compared with the data rates of mobile
telecommunications technology, and their range is very limited. Wi-Fi is the most widespread
and popular example of WLAN technology.
WIRELESS METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (WMAN)
This network enables you to access the Internet and multimedia streaming services via a
wireless region area network (WRAN).
These networks provide a very fast data speed compared with the data rates of mobile
telecommunication technology as well as other wireless network, and their range is also
extensive.
ISSUES WITH WIRELESS NETWORKS
Quality of Service (QoS): One of the primary concerns about wireless data delivery is that, unlike the Internet through wired
services, QoS is inadequate. Lost packets and atmospheric interference are recurring problems of the wireless protocols.
WLANs typically offer lower quality than their wired counterparts. The main reasons for this are the lower bandwidth
due to limitations in radio transmission (e.g., only 1–10 Mbit/s user data rate instead of 100–1,000 Mbit/s)
Security Risk: This is another major issue with a data transfer over a wireless network. Basic network security mechanisms like
the service set identifier (SSID) and Wireless Equivalency Privacy (WEP); these measures may be adequate for residences and
small businesses, but they are inadequate for the entities that require stronger security.
Reachable Range: Normally, wireless network offers a range of about 100 meters or less. Range is a function of
antenna design and power. Now a days the range of wireless is extended to tens of miles so this should not be an
Proprietary solutions: Due to slow standardization procedures, many companies have come up with proprietary
solutions offering standardized functionality plus many enhanced features. At least most components today adhere
Global operation: WLAN products should sell in all countries so, national and international frequency regulations have to
be considered.
Low power: Devices communicating via a WLAN are typically also wireless devices running on battery power. The LAN
design should take this into account and implement special power-saving modes and power management functions.
License-free operation: LAN operators do not want to apply for a special license to be able to use the product. The
equipment must operate in a license-free band, such as the 2.4 GHz ISM band.
Robust transmission technology: Compared to their wired counterparts, WLANs operate under difficult conditions. If they use radio
transmission, many other electrical devices can interfere with them (vacuum cleaners, hairdryers, train engines etc.).
Easy to use: In contrast to huge and complex wireless WANs, wireless LANs are made for simple use. They should not require
Protection of investment: A lot of money has already been invested into wired LANs. The new WLANs should protect this investment
by being interoperable with the existing networks. This means that simple bridging between the different LANs should be enough to
interoperate, i.e., the wireless LANs should support the same data types and services that standard LANs support.
Transparency for applications: Existing applications should continue to run over WLANs
INFRASTRUCTURE AND AD-HOC NETWORKS
Many WLANs of today need an infrastructure network. Infrastructure networks not only
provide access to other networks, but also include forwarding functions, medium access control
etc.
between the wireless nodes and the access point , but not directly between the wireless nodes.
Infrastructure-based wireless networks
The access point does not just control medium access, but also acts as a bridge to other wireless or wired networks.
Several wireless networks may form one logical wireless network, so the access points together with the fixed network in between
can connect several wireless networks to form a larger network beyond actual radio coverage. Design of infrastructure-based
This structure is reminiscent of switched Ethernet or other star-based networks, where a central element (e.g., a switch) controls
network flow.
Typical cellular phone networks are infrastructure-based networks for a wide area . Also satellite-based cellular phones have an
Nodes within an ad-hoc network can only communicate if they can reach each other physically, i.e., if they are within each others
In ad-hoc networks, the complexity of each node is higher because every node has to implement medium access mechanisms
IEEE 802.11 and HiperLAN2 are typically infrastructure-based networks, which additionally support ad-hoc
INFRARED
UHF(Narrow band)
SPREAD SPECTRUM
1. Infrared Technology:
Infrared is an invisible band of radiation that exists at lower end of visible electromagnetic
spectrum.
There are two types of infrared WLAN solutions:
• Direct beam (or line-of-sight)
• Diffused beam (uses reflected rays)
Direct beam WLANs offer faster data rates while diffused beam technology achieves lower data
rates in 1-2 Mbps range.
The advantage of using this technology is that there are no government regulations on its use and
also it is immune to EM and RF interference.
The disadvantage is that it is a short range technology (30-50 ft radius under ideal conditions).Also,
it requires line-of-sight. The signal gets affected by solid objects like doors, walls, etc. The signal is
also affected by fog, dirt, ice, snow.
2. UHF Narrowband technology:
The frequency range is 430 to 470 MHZ and rarely segments in 800 MHZ range.
The portion 430-450 MHZ is unlicensed while 450-470 MHZ band is licensed.
The term narrow band is used because RF signal is sent in a very narrow band width,
typically 12.5 KHz or 25 KHz.
There are two systems: Synthesized and Un-synthesized system uses crystal controlled
frequency operation. There can be frequency drift problem in crystal.
The synthesized uses single, standard crystal. Multiple frequencies are achieved using
dividing the crystal frequency and then multiplying it to desired channel frequency.
The advantage of this technology is that it has longest range and its low cost for large
sites.
The disadvantages of this include the need of license, no multivendor inter operability
and interference potential.
3.Spread Spectrum Technology:
In this technique, the entire allotted bandwidth is shared instead of dividing it
into discrete private parts.
The spread spectrum spreads the transmission power over entire usable spectrum.
Thus, though bandwidth efficiency decreases; reliability, integrity and security
increase.
In commercial applications, spread spectrum techniques currently offer data rates
up to 2Mbps.
Two modulation schemes are used to encode spread spectrum signals : frequency
hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) and direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
FHSS uses a narrowband carrier that changes frequency in a pattern known to both
transmitter and receiver. To some other receiver, FHSS appears to be a short-
duration impulse noise. Thus, the data security increases.
Similarly, DSSS generates redundant bit pattern for every bit to be transmitted,
known as spreading code, known only to transmitter and receiver. To some other
receiver, DSSS appears as low-power, wideband noise and is rejected.
IEEE 802.11
802.11 Wi-Fi Wireless LAN Media Access Control and Physical Layer specification. 802.11a,b,g,etc.
are amendments to the original 802.11 standard. Products that implement 802.11
standards must pass tests and are referred to as "Wi-Fi certified."
Station (STA)
802.11 LAN • terminal with access mechanisms to the wireless medium
802.x LAN
and radio contact to the access point
Basic Service Set (BSS)
STA1 • group of stations using the same radio frequency
BSS1
Portal Access Point
Access
Point • station integrated into the wireless LAN and the
distribution system
Distribution System
Portal
Access • bridge to other (wired) networks
ESS Point
Distribution System
BSS2 • interconnection network to form one logical network
(EES: Extended Service Set) based
on several BSS
Infrastructure-based
Extended Service Set (ESS) and has its own identifier, the ESSID. The ESSID is the ‘name’ of a network and
is used to separate different networks. Without knowing the ESSID (and assuming no hacking) it should not be
Stations can select an AP and associate with it. The APs support roaming (i.e., changing access points), the
distribution system handles data transfer between the different APs. APs provide synchronization within a BSS.
In addition to infrastructure-based networks, IEEE 802.11 allows the building of ad-hoc networks
ARCHITECTURE OF AN AD-HOC NETWORK
Direct communication within a limited range 802.11 LAN
• Station (STA): terminal with access mechanisms to the
wireless medium
STA1
• Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS): group of stations STA3
IBSS1
using the same radio frequency
In this case, an IBSS comprises a group of stations
using the same radio frequency. STA2
This means for example that STA3 can communicate
directly with STA2 but not with STA5.
IBSS2
STA5
The physical layer is subdivided into the physical layer convergence protocol (PLCP) and the
physical medium dependent sublayer PMD
PLCP sublayer provides a carrier sense signal, called clear channel assessment (CCA), and provides a
common PHY service access point (SAP) independent of the transmission technology. Finally, the PMD
sublayer handles modulation and encoding/decoding of signals.
The basic tasks of the MAC layer comprise medium access, fragmentation of user data, and encryption.
PHYSICAL LAYER:
The PHY layer offers a service access point (SAP) with 1 or 2 Mbit/s transfer rate to the MAC layer.
3. Infra Red
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a spread spectrum technique which allows for the
coexistence of multiple networks in the same area by separating different networks using different
hopping sequences.
The original standard defines 79 hopping channels for North America and Europe, and 23 hopping
channels for Japan.
The selection of a particular channel is achieved by using a pseudo-random hopping pattern.
The standard specifies Gaussian shaped FSK (frequency shift keying), GFSK, as modulation for the FHSS
PHY. For 1 Mbit/s a 2 level GFSK is used (i.e., 1 bit is mapped to one frequency), a 4 level GFSK for 2 Mbit/s
(i.e., 2 bits are mapped to one frequency).
While sending and receiving at 1 Mbit/s is mandatory for all devices, operation at 2 Mbit/s is optional.
This facilitated the production of low-cost devices for the lower rate only and more powerful devices for
both transmission rates in the early days of 802.11.
Format of an IEEE 802.11 PHY frame using FHSS
Synchronization: This pattern is used for synchronization of potential receivers and signal detection by the CCA.
Start frame delimiter (SFD): The following 16 bits indicate the start of the frame and provide frame synchronization.
PLCP_PDU length word (PLW): This first field of the PLCP header indicates the length of the payload in bytes
PLCP signalling field (PSF): This 4 bit field indicates the data rate of the payload following.
Header error check (HEC): Finally, the PLCP header is protected by a 16 bit checksum
Direct sequence spread spectrum
Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) is the alternative spread spectrum method separating
In the case of IEEE 802.11 DSSS, spreading is achieved using the 11-chip Barker sequence (+1, –1,
+1, +1, –1, +1, +1, +1, –1, –1, –1). The key characteristics of this method are its robustness against
The system uses differential binary phase shift keying (DBPSK) for 1 Mbit/s transmission and
differential quadrature phase shift keying (DQPSK) for 2 Mbit/s as modulation schemes.
Format of an IEEE 802.11 PHY frame using DSSS
Synchronization: The first 128 bits are not only used for synchronization, but also gain setting, energy detection
Start frame delimiter (SFD): This 16 bit field is used for synchronization at the beginning of a frame
Signal: Only two values have been defined for this field to indicate the data rate of the payload. The value 0x0A
indicates 1 Mbit/s (and thus DBPSK), 0x14 indicates 2 Mbit/s (and thus DQPSK).
Length: 16 bits are used in this case for length indication of the payload in microseconds.
Header error check (HEC): Signal, service, and length fields are protected by this checksum.
Infra Red
The PHY layer, which is based on infra red (IR) transmission, uses near visible light at 850–950 nm.
The standard does not require a line-of-sight between sender and receiver, but should also work with
The maximum range is about 10 m if no sunlight or heat sources interfere with the transmission.
Typically, such a network will only work in buildings, e.g., classrooms, meeting rooms etc.
Today, no products are available that offer infra red communication based on 802.11.
Proprietary products offer, e.g., up to 4 Mbit/s using diffuse infra red light. Alternatively, directed infra red
2. An optional method avoiding the hidden terminal problem } distributed coordination function (DCF)
3. A contention-free polling method for time-bounded service. point coordination function (PCF).
DCF only offers asynchronous service, while PCF offers both asynchronous and time-bounded.
The MAC mechanisms are also called distributed foundation wireless medium access control
(DFWMAC).
Medium access and inter-frame spacing
Short inter-frame spacing (SIFS): The shortest waiting time for medium access (so the highest priority)
is defined for short control messages, such as acknowledgements of data packets or polling responses.
PCF inter-frame spacing (PIFS): A waiting time between DIFS and SIFS (and thus a medium priority) is
DCF inter-frame spacing (DIFS): This parameter denotes the longest waiting time and has the lowest
priority for medium access. This waiting time is used for asynchronous data service within a contention
period
1.Basic DFWMAC-DCF using CSMA/CA
• Station ready to send starts sensing the medium (carrier sense based on CCA, clear channel
assessment)
• If the medium is free for the duration of an inter-frame space (IFS), the station can start
sending (IFS depends on service type)
• If the medium is busy, the station has to wait for a free IFS, then the station must
additionally wait a random back-off time (collision avoidance, multiple of slot-time) CW = 7,
15, 31, 63, 127
• If another station occupies the medium during the back-off time of the station, the back-off
timer stops (fairness)
802.11 - competing stations - simple version (no RTS/CTS)
DIFS DIFS DIFS DIFS
boe bor boe bor boe busy
station1
boe busy
station2
busy
station3
busy medium not idle (frame, ack etc.) boe elapsed backoff time
DIFS
data
sender
SIFS
ACK
receiver
DIFS
other data
stations t
waiting time contention
2. 802.11 – DFWMAC (Distributed Foundation Wireless MAC)
Sending unicast packets
• Station can send RTS with reservation parameter after waiting for DIFS (reservation determines
amount of time the data packet needs the medium)
• Acknowledgement via CTS after SIFS by receiver (if ready to receive)
• Sender can now send data at once, acknowledgement via ACK
• Other stations store medium reservations distributed via RTS and CTS
DIFS
RTS data
sender
SIFS SIFS
CTS SIFS ACK
receiver
data transmission.
This duration specifies the time interval necessary to transmit the whole data frame and the
Every node receiving this RTS now has to set its net allocation vector (NAV) in accordance with the duration
field.
Fragmentation
DIFS
RTS frag1 frag2
sender
SIFS SIFS SIFS
CTS SIFS ACK1 SIFS ACK2
receiver
NAV (RTS)
NAV (CTS)
NAV (frag1) DIFS
other NAV (ACK1) data
stations t
contention
3. DFWMAC-PCF with polling
The two access mechanisms presented so far cannot guarantee a maximum access delay or minimum
transmission bandwidth.
To provide a time-bounded service, the standard specifies a point coordination function (PCF) on top of
the standard DCF mechanisms.
Using PCF requires an access point that controls medium access and polls the single nodes. Ad-hoc
networks cannot use this function.
DFWMAC-PCF
t0 t1
SuperFrame
medium busy
PIFS SIFS SIFS
D1 D2
point
coordinator SIFS SIFS
U1 U2
wireless
stations
stations‘ NAV
NAV
contention free period
DFWMAC-PCF II (cont.)
t2 t3 t4
PIFS SIFS
D3 D4 CFend
point
coordinator SIFS
U4
wireless
stations
stations‘ NAV
NAV contention free period t
contention
period
Frame control: The first 2 bytes serve several purposes. They contain several sub-fields as explained after the
MAC frame.
Duration/ID: The duration field contains the value indicating the period of time in which the medium is occupied
(in μs).
Address 1 to 4: The four address fields contain standard IEEE 802 MAC addresses (48 bit each), as they are
known from other 802.x LANs.
Sequence control: Due to the acknowledgement mechanism frames may be duplicated. Therefore a sequence
number is used to filter duplicates.
Data: The MAC frame may contain arbitrary data (max. 2,312 byte), which is transferred transparently from a
sender to the receiver(s).
Checksum (CRC): Finally, a 32 bit checksum is used to protect the frame as it is common practice in all 802.x
networks.
Protocol version: This 2 bit field indicates the current protocol version and is fixed to 0 by now.
Type: The type field determines the function of a frame: management (=00), control (=01), or data (=10). The
value 11 is reserved
Subtype: Example subtypes for management frames are: 0000 for association request, 1000 for beacon.
More fragments: This field is set to 1 in all data or management frames that have another fragment of the
current.
Retry: If the current frame is a retransmission of an earlier frame, this bit is set to 1. With the help of this bit it may
be simpler for receivers to eliminate duplicate frames.
Power management: This field indicates the mode of a station after successful transmission of a frame. Set to 1
the field indicates that the station goes into power-save mode. If the field is set to 0, the station stays active.
More data: In general, this field is used to indicate a receiver that a sender has more data to send than the
current frame.
Wired equivalent privacy (WEP): This field indicates that the standard security mechanism of 802.11 is applied.
Order: If this bit is set to 1 the received frames must be processed in strict order.
802.11 - MAC management
• Synchronization
• try to find a WLAN, try to stay within a WLAN
• timer etc.
• Power management
• sleep-mode without missing a message
• periodic sleep, frame buffering, traffic measurements
• Association/Reassociation
• integration into a LAN
• roaming, i.e. change networks by changing access points
• scanning, i.e. active search for a network
• MIB - Management Information Base
• managing, read, write (SNMP)
Synchronization using a Beacon
(infrastructure)
beacon interval
access
point B B B B
beacon interval
B1 B1
station1
B2 B2
station2
D B T T d D B
access
point
busy busy busy busy
medium
p d
station
t
T TIM D DTIM awake
PS – Power Saving
Traffic Indication Map (TIM)
Delivery Traffic Indication Map (DTIM)-for multicast data transmission
Power saving with wake-up patterns (ad-hoc)
ATIM
window beacon interval
B1 A D B1
station1
B2 B2 a d
station2
t
B beacon frame random delay A transmit ATIM D transmit data
This standard describes a new PHY layer and is by far the most successful version of IEEE 802.11 available
today.
All the MAC schemes, management procedures etc. are still same.
Depending on the current interference and the distance between sender and receiver 802.11b systems offer
11, 5.5, 2, or 1 Mbit/s. Maximum user data rate is approx. 6 Mbit/s. The lower data rates 1 and 2 Mbit/s use
The standard defines several packet formats for the physical layer. The mandatory format interoperates with
the original versions of 802.11. The optional versions provide a more efficient data transfer
long PLCP PPDU:
One difference is the rate encoded in the signal field this is encoded in multiples of 100 kbit/s.
The short synchronization field consists of 56 scrambled zeros instead of scrambled ones.
The length of the overhead is only half for the short frames (96 μs instead of 192 μs).
Channel plan for IEEE 802.11b
IEEE 802.11b non-overlapping channel selection
This results in the channels 1, 6, and 11 for the US/Canada or 1, 7, 13 for Europe, respectively.
It may be the case that, e.g., travellers from the US cannot use the additional channels (12 and 13) in
• To offer a data rate of 12 Mbit/s, 96 bits are coded into one OFDM symbol. These 96 bits are distributed
over 48 subcarriers and 2 bits are modulated per sub-carrier using QPSK
WLAN: IEEE 802.11 – developments
• 802.11c: Bridge Support
• Definition of MAC procedures to support bridges as extension to 802.1D
• 802.11d: Regulatory Domain Update
• Support of additional regulations related to channel selection, hopping sequences
• 802.11e: MAC Enhancements – QoS
• Enhance the current 802.11 MAC to expand support for applications with Quality of Service
requirements, and in the capabilities and efficiency of the protocol
• Definition of a data flow (“connection”) with parameters like rate, burst, period…
• Additional energy saving mechanisms and more efficient retransmission
• 802.11f: Inter-Access Point Protocol
• Establish an Inter-Access Point Protocol for data exchange via the distribution system
• 802.11g: Data Rates > 20 Mbit/s at 2.4 GHz; 54 Mbit/s, OFDM
• Successful successor of 802.11b, performance loss during mixed operation with 11b
• 802.11h: Spectrum Managed 802.11a
• Extension for operation of 802.11a in Europe by mechanisms like channel measurement for dynamic
channel selection (DFS, Dynamic Frequency Selection) and power control (TPC, Transmit Power Control)
WLAN: IEEE 802.11– developments
• 802.11i: Enhanced Security Mechanisms
• Enhance the current 802.11 MAC to provide improvements in security.
• TKIP enhances the insecure WEP, but remains compatible to older WEP systems
• AES provides a secure encryption method and is based on new hardware
• 802.11j: Extensions for operations in Japan
• Changes of 802.11a for operation at 5GHz in Japan using only half the channel width at larger range
• 802.11k: Methods for channel measurements
• Devices and access points should be able to estimate channel quality in order to be able to choose a better access
point of channel
• 802.11m: Updates of the 802.11 standards
• 802.11n: Higher data rates above 100Mbit/s
• Changes of PHY and MAC with the goal of 100Mbit/s at MAC SAP
• MIMO antennas (Multiple Input Multiple Output), up to 600Mbit/s are currently feasible
• However, still a large overhead due to protocol headers and inefficient mechanisms
• 802.11p: Inter car communications
• Communication between cars/road side and cars/cars
• Planned for relative speeds of min. 200km/h and ranges over 1000m
• Usage of 5.850-5.925GHz band in North America
WLAN: IEEE 802.11– future developments
• 802.11r: Faster Handover between BSS
• Secure, fast handover of a station from one AP to another within an ESS
• Current mechanisms (even newer standards like 802.11i) plus incompatible devices from different vendors are
massive problems for the use of, e.g., VoIP in WLANs
• Handover should be feasible within 50ms in order to support multimedia applications efficiently
• 802.11s: Mesh Networking
• Design of a self-configuring Wireless Distribution System (WDS) based on 802.11
• Support of point-to-point and broadcast communication across several hops
• 802.11t: Performance evaluation of 802.11 networks
• Standardization of performance measurement schemes
• 802.11u: Interworking with additional external networks
• 802.11v: Network management
• Extensions of current management functions, channel measurements
• Definition of a unified interface
• 802.11w: Securing of network control
• Classical standards like 802.11, but also 802.11i protect only data frames, not the control frames. Thus, this standard
should extend 802.11i in a way that, e.g., no control frames can be forged.
HIPERLAN
(High Performance Local Area Network)
WLAN allowing for node mobility and supporting ad-hoc and infrastructure-based topologies
Names have changed and the former HIPERLANs 2, 3, and 4 are now called HiperLAN2, HIPERACCESS,
and HIPERLINK.
The current focus is on HiperLAN2, a standard that comprises many elements from ETSI’s BRAN
Wireless LAN supporting priorities and packet life time for data transfer at 23.5 Mbit/s, including forwarding
mechanisms, topology discovery, user data encryption, network identification and power conservation
mechanisms. HIPERLAN 1 should operate at 5.1–5.3 GHz with a range of 50 m in buildings at 1 W transmit
power.
The service offered by a HIPERLAN 1 is compatible with the standard MAC services known from IEEE 802.x
LANs.
For power conservation, a node may set up a specific wake-up pattern. This pattern determines at what time
the node is ready to receive, so that at other times, the node can turn off its receiver and save energy. These
nodes are called p-savers and need so-called p-supporters that contain information about the wake-up
patterns of all the p-savers they are responsible for. A p-supporter only forwards data to a p-saver at the
moment the p-saver is awake.
Elimination-yield non-preemptive priority multiple access (EY-NPMA)
It is a heart of the channel access providing priorities and different access schemes. EY-NPMA divides
Prioritization: Determine the highest priority of a data packet ready to be sent by competing nodes.
Contention: Eliminate all but one of the contenders, if more than one sender has the highest current priority.
elimination survival
The contention phase
synchronization
elimination burst
priority assertion
priority detection
yield listening
is further subdivided
user data
into an elimination
verification
phase and a yield
phase.
• If an earlier time-slot for a higher priority remains empty, stations with the next lower priority might send
• After this first phase the highest current priority has been determined
Several terminals can now have the same priority and wish to send
CONTENTION PHASE
Elimination Burst: all remaining terminals send a burst to eliminate contenders
(11111010100010011100000110010110, high bit- rate)
Elimination Survival Verification: contenders now sense the channel, if the channel is free they can continue,
otherwise they have been eliminated
Yield Listening: contenders again listen in slots with a nonzero probability, if the terminal senses its slot idle it is free to
transmit at the end of the contention
DATA TRANSMISSION
The winner can now send its data (however, a small chance of collision remains).if the channel was idle for a longer
time a terminal can send at once without using EY-NPMA
synchronization using the last data transmission
Wireless ATM
(Wireless Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
WATM: sometimes also called wireless, mobile ATM, wmATM
IEEE WLANs originate from the data communication community, many WATM aspects come
from the telecommunication industry
Motivation for WATM:
1. The need for seamless integration of wireless terminals into an ATM network.
2. ATM networks scale well from LANs to WANs – and mobility is needed in local and wide area
applications.
4. WATM could offer QoS for adequate support of multi-media data streams.
Wireless ATM working group:
ATM Forum formed the Wireless ATM Working Group in 1996, which aimed to develop a set of specifications that
extends the use of ATM technology to wireless networks.
The following more general extensions of the ATM system also need to be considered for a mobile ATM:
Location management: Similar to other cellular networks, WATM networks must be able to locate a wireless terminal
or a mobile user.
Mobile routing: Even if the location of a terminal is known to the system, it still has to route the traffic through the
network to the access point currently responsible for the wireless terminal. Each time a user moves to a new access
point, the system must reroute traffic.
Handover signalling: The network must provide mechanisms which search for new access points
QoS and traffic control: In contrast to wireless networks offering only best effort traffic, and to cellular networks
offering only a few different types of traffic, WATM should be able to offer many QoS parameters. To maintain these
parameters, all actions such as rerouting, handover etc. have to be controlled.
Network management: All extensions of protocols or other mechanisms also require an extension of the
management functions to control the network
WATM services:
1. Office environments
3. Industry
4. Hospitals
5. Home
6. Networked vehicles
Generic reference model
radio segment fixed network segment
A mobile ATM (MATM) terminal uses a WATM terminal adapter to gain wireless access to a WATM RAS
(Radio Access System).
MATM terminals could be represented by, e.g., laptops using an ATM adapter for wired access plus
software for mobility.
The WATM terminal adapter enables wireless access, i.e., it includes the transceiver etc., but it does not
support mobility.
The RAS with the radio transceivers is connected to a mobility enhanced ATM switch (EMAS-E), which in
turn connects to the ATM network with mobility aware switches (EMAS-N)
Finally, a wired, non-mobility aware ATM end system may be the communication partner in this example.
HANDOVER:
The main problem for WATM during the handover is rerouting all connections and maintaining connection quality.
Different requirements have been set up for handover
Handover of multiple connections:
Handover in WATM must support more than one connection.
This results in the rerouting of every connection after handover.
However, resource availability may not allow rerouting of all connections or forces QoS degradation.
The terminal may then decide to accept a lower quality or to drop single connections.
Handover of point-to-multi-point connections:
WATM handover should also support these types of connection.
However, due to the complexity of the scheme, some restrictions might be necessary.
QoS support:
Handover should aim to preserve the QoS of all connections during handover.
However, due to limited resources, this is not always possible.
LOCATION MANAGEMENT
As for all networks supporting mobility, special functions are required for looking up the current position of a mobile
terminal, for providing the moving terminal with a permanent address, and for ensuring security features such as
privacy, authentication, or authorization.
Soft handover QoS: Even for the current wireless segment, only statistical QoS guarantees can be
given, and the applications also have to adapt after the handover.
BRAN
Broadband Radio Access Networks
The main motivation behind BRAN is the deregulation and privatization of the telecommunication
sector in Europe.
Many new providers experience problems getting access to customers because the telephone
One possible technology to provide network access for customers is radio. The advantages of radio
BRAN standardization has a rather large scope including indoor and campus mobility, transfer
Sector handover (Inter sector): If sector antennas are used for an AP, which is optional in the standard, the AP
shall support sector handover. This type of handover is handled inside the DLC layer so is not visible outside the
AP
Radio handover (Inter-APT/Intra-AP): As this handover type, too, is handled within the AP, no external interaction
is needed. In the example of Figure the terminal MT3, moves from one APT to another of the same AP. All context
data for the connections are already in the AP
Network handover (Inter-AP/Intra-network): This is the most complex situation: MT2 moves from one AP to
another. In this case, the core network and higher layers are also involved. This handover might be supported by
the core network
AP
MT1
APT APC Core
1 Network
MT2 (Ethernet,
Firewire,
3 AP ATM,
MT3 APT
UMTS)
APC
2
MT4 APT
Centralized vs. direct mode
AP AP/CC
control control
control
data
data
MT1 MT2 MT1 MT2 MT1 MT2 +CC
data control
Centralized Direct
HiperLAN2 protocol stack
Higher layers
Physical layer
Physical layer reference configuration
PDU train from DLC
(PSDU)
scrambling FEC coding interleaving
5150 5180 5200 5220 5240 5260 5280 5300 5320 5350 [MHz]
16.6 MHz
100 104 108 112 116 120 124 128 132 136 140 channel
5470 5500 5520 5540 5560 5580 5600 5620 5640 5660 5680 5700 5725
16.6 MHz [MHz]
center frequency =
5000 + 5*channel number [MHz]
Basic structure of HiperLAN2 MAC frames
2 ms 2 ms 2 ms 2 ms TDD,
MAC frame MAC frame MAC frame MAC frame 500 OFDM
...
symbols
per frame
random
broadcast phase downlink phase uplink phase
access phase
variable variable variable
2 406 24 bit
2 10 396 24 bit
sequence UDCH transfer syntax
LCH PDU type payload CRC
number (long PDU)
54 byte
Valid configurations of HiperLAN2 MAC frames
2 ms 2 ms 2 ms 2 ms
MAC frame MAC frame MAC frame MAC frame ...
random
broadcast downlink uplink access
downlink
UDCH DCCH LCCH ASCH UDCH UBCH UMCH DCCH RBCH LCCH
1999:
Ericsson mobile
communications AB
reste denna sten till
minne av Harald
Blåtand, som fick ge
sitt namn åt en ny
teknologi för trådlös,
mobil kommunikation.
…and the real rune stone
Located in Jelling, Denmark,
erected by King Harald “Blåtand”
in memory of his parents.
The stone has three sides – one side
showing a picture of Christ.
Inscription:
"Harald king executes these sepulchral
monuments after Gorm, his father and
Thyra, his mother. The Harald who won the
whole of Denmark and Norway and turned This could be the “original” colors
the Danes to Christianity." of the stone.
Inscription:
Btw: Blåtand means “of dark complexion” “auk tani karthi kristna” (and
(not having a blue tooth…) made the Danes Christians)
Characteristics
2.4 GHz ISM band, 79 (23) RF channels, 1 MHz carrier spacing
• Channel 0: 2402 MHz … channel 78: 2480 MHz
• G-FSK modulation, 1-100 mW transmit power
FHSS and TDD
• Frequency hopping with 1600 hops/s
• Hopping sequence in a pseudo random fashion, determined by a master
• Time division duplex for send/receive separation
Voice link – SCO (Synchronous Connection Oriented)
• FEC (forward error correction), no retransmission, 64 kbit/s duplex, point-to-point, circuit switched
Data link – ACL (Asynchronous ConnectionLess)
• Asynchronous, fast acknowledge, point-to-multipoint, up to 433.9 kbit/s symmetric or 723.2/57.6
kbit/s asymmetric, packet switched
Topology
• Overlapping piconets (stars) forming a scatternet
Piconet
• Collection of devices connected in an ad hoc fashion
P
S
• One unit acts as master and the others as slaves for the lifetime of
the piconet S
M P
• Master determines hopping pattern, slaves have to synchronize
• Each piconet has a unique hopping pattern SB S
• Participation in a piconet = synchronization to hopping sequence P SB
• Each piconet has one master and up to 7 simultaneous slaves
(> 200 could be parked)
• 3 bit address is used by Bluetooth device. M=Master P=Parked
S=Slave SB=Standby
Forming a piconet
All devices in a piconet hop together
• Master gives slaves its clock and device ID
• Hopping pattern: determined by device ID (48 bit, unique worldwide)
• Phase in hopping pattern determined by clock
Addressing
• Active Member Address (AMA, 3 bit)
• Parked Member Address (PMA, 8 bit)
P
SB S
SB S
SB M P
SB SB
SB S
SB SB P
SB SB
SB
Scatternet
Linking of multiple co-located piconets through the sharing of common master
or slave devices
• Devices can be slave in one piconet and master of another
Communication between piconets
• Devices jumping back and forth between the piconets
Piconets
(each with a
capacity of
720 kbit/s)
P
S S
S
P
P
M=Master M
S=Slave M
P=Parked SB S
SB=Standby P SB SB
S
Bluetooth protocol stack
audio apps. NW apps. vCal/vCard telephony apps. mgmnt. apps.
TCP/UDP OBEX
AT modem
IP
commands
TCS BIN SDP
BNEP PPP Control
Baseband
Radio
Power class 2: Maximum power is 2.5 mW, nominal power is 1 mW, and
minimum power is 0.25 mW (typ. 10 m range without obstacles). Power
control is optional.
4 64 (4) 3 4 1 1 1 8 bits
preamble sync. (trailer) AM address type flow ARQN SEQN HEC
Frequency selection during data transmission
625 µs
M S M S M S M
t
M S M S M
t
fk fk+1 fk+6
M S M
t
SCO payload types
payload (30)
DV audio (10) header (1) payload (0-9) 2/3 FEC CRC (2)
(bytes)
ACL Payload types
payload (0-343)
SLAVE 1
f1 f7 f9 f13 f19
SLAVE 2
f5 f17 f21
Robustness
• Slow frequency hopping with hopping patterns determined by a master
• Protection from interference on certain frequencies
• Separation from other piconets (FH-CDMA)
• Retransmission
• ACL only, very fast Error in payload
(not header!)
• Forward Error Correction
NAK ACK
• SCO and ACL
MASTER A C C F H
SLAVE 1 B D E
SLAVE 2 G G
Baseband states of a Bluetooth device
standby unconnected
• Protocol multiplexing
• RFCOMM, SDP, telephony control
• Group abstraction
• Create/close group, add/remove member
L2CAP logical channels
Connection-oriented PDU
2 2 0-65535 bytes
length CID payload
1 1 2 0
code ID length data
Security User input (initialization)
PIN (1-16 byte) Pairing PIN (1-16 byte)
• OBEX
• Exchange of objects, IrDA replacement
• WAP
• Interacting with applications on cellular phones
WPAN: IEEE 802.15-1 – Bluetooth
•Data rate •Connection set-up time
• Synchronous, connection-oriented: 64 • Depends on power-mode
kbit/s • Max. 2.56s, avg. 0.64s
• Asynchronous, connectionless
• 433.9 kbit/s symmetric •Quality of Service
• 723.2 / 57.6 kbit/s asymmetric • Guarantees, ARQ/FEC
802.15.3b:
• Enhanced interoperability of MAC
• Correction of errors and ambiguities in the standard
802.15.3c:
• Alternative PHY at 57-64 GHz
• Goal: data rates above 2 Gbit/s
• Not all these working groups really create a standard, not all standards will be
found in products later …
WPAN: IEEE 802.15 – future developments 3
• 802.15-4: Low-Rate, Very Low-Power
• Low data rate solution with multi-month to multi-year battery life and very low complexity
• Potential applications are sensors, interactive toys, smart badges, remote controls, and home
automation
• Data rates of 20-250 kbit/s, latency down to 15 ms
• Master-Slave or Peer-to-Peer operation
• Up to 254 devices or 64516 simpler nodes
• Support for critical latency devices, such as joysticks
• CSMA/CA channel access (data centric), slotted (beacon) or unslotted
• Automatic network establishment by the PAN coordinator
• Dynamic device addressing, flexible addressing format
• Fully handshaked protocol for transfer reliability
• Power management to ensure low power consumption
• 16 channels in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, 10 channels in the 915 MHz US ISM band and one channel in
the European 868 MHz band
• Basis of the ZigBee technology – www.zigbee.org
WiMAX
Emerging Technologies
Current Scenario
Think about how you access the Internet today. There are basically three different options:
Broadband access - In your home, you have either a DSL or cable modem. At the office,
your company may be using a T1 or a T3 line.
WiFi access - In your home, you may have set up a WiFi router that lets you surf the Web
while you lounge with your laptop. On the road, you can find WiFi hot spots in restaurants,
hotels, coffee shops and libraries.
Dial-up access - If you are still using dial-up, chances are that either broadband access is
not available, or you think that broadband access is too expensive.
Current Scenario
The main problems with broadband access are that it is pretty expensive and it doesn't
reach all areas. The main problem with WiFi access is that hot spots are very small, so
coverage is sparse.
What if there were a new technology that solved all of these problems? This new
technology would provide:
Offers an alternative to high bandwidth wired access networks like fiber optic, cable modems and
DSL.
Provides network access to buildings through exterior antennas communicating with radio base
stations.
Networks can be created in just weeks by deploying a small number of base stations on buildings or
poles to create high capacity wireless access systems.
WiMax Vs. WiFi
WiMAX operates on the same general principles as WiFi - it sends data from one computer to another via
Radio signals.
A computer (either a desktop or a laptop) equipped with WiMAX would receive data from the WiMAX
transmitting station, probably using encrypted data keys to prevent unauthorized users from stealing access.
The fastest WiFi connection can transmit up to 54 megabits per second under optimal conditions.
Even once that 70 megabits is split up between several dozen businesses or a few hundred home users, it
will provide at least the equivalent of cable-modem transfer rates to each user.
WiMax Vs. WiFi
The biggest difference isn't speed; it's distance. WiMAX outdistances WiFi by miles. WiFi's range is about
100 feet (30 m). WiMAX will blanket a radius of 30 miles (50 km) with wireless access.
The increased range is due to the frequencies used and the power of the transmitter.
Of course, at that distance, terrain, weather and large buildings will act to reduce the maximum range in
some circumstances, but the potential is there to cover huge tracts of land.
WiMax is not designed to clash with WiFi, but to coexist with it.
WiMax specifications also provides much better facilities than WiFi, providing higher bandwidth and high
IEEE 802.16 standards are concerned with the air interface between a subscriber’s
transceiver station and a base transceiver station
The Physical Layer
MAC Layer
Convergence Layer
IEEE 802.16 Protocol Architecture
Physical Layer
• The IEEE 802.16e-2005 standard provides the air interface for WiMAX but does not define the full end-to-
end WiMAX network. The WiMAX Forum's Network Working Group (NWG), is responsible for
developing the end-to-end network requirements, architecture, and protocols for WiMAX, using IEEE
802.16e-2005 as the air interface.
• The WiMAX NWG has developed a network reference model to serve as an architecture framework for
WiMAX deployments and to ensure interoperability among various WiMAX equipment and operators.
• The network reference model envisions a unified network architecture for supporting fixed, nomadic, and
mobile deployments and is based on an IP service model.
Reference Network Model
1) Base station (BS): The BS is responsible for providing the air interface to the MS. Additional functions that
may be part of the BS are micromobility management functions, such as handoff triggering and tunnel
establishment, radio resource management, QoS policy enforcement, traffic classification, DHCP (Dynamic
Host Control Protocol) proxy, key management, session management, and multicast group management.
Reference Network Model
2) Access service network gateway (ASN-GW): The ASN gateway typically acts as a
layer 2 traffic aggregation point within an ASN. Additional functions that may be part of
the ASN gateway include intra-ASN location management and paging, radio resource
management and admission control, caching of subscriber profiles and encryption keys,
establishment and management of mobility tunnel with base stations, QoS and policy
enforcement, foreign agent functionality for mobile IP, and routing to the selected CSN.
Reference Network Model
3) Connectivity service network (CSN): The CSN provides connectivity to the Internet, ASP, other public
The CSN is owned by the NSP and includes AAA servers that support authentication for the devices, users,
and specific services. The CSN also provides per user policy management of QoS and security.
The CSN is also responsible for IP address management, support for roaming between different NSPs, location
An important and very challenging function of the WiMAX system is the support of various advanced
antenna techniques, which are essential to provide high spectral efficiency, capacity, system performance, and
reliability.
1) Non-line-of-sight: service is a WiFi sort of service. Here a small antenna on your computer connects to the
WiMAX tower. In this mode, WiMAX uses a lower frequency range -- 2 GHz to 11 GHz (similar to WiFi).
2) Line-of-sight: service, where a fixed dish antenna points straight at the WiMAX tower from a rooftop or
pole. The line-of-sight connection is stronger and more stable, so it's able to send a lot of data with fewer
errors. Line-of-sight transmissions use higher frequencies, with ranges reaching a possible 66 GHz.
Advanced Features of WiMAX
WiMAX is capable of supporting very high peak data rates. In fact, the peak PHY data rate can be as high as
74Mbps when operating using a 20MHz wide spectrum.
More typically, using a 10MHz spectrum operating using TDD scheme with a 3:1 downlink-to-uplink ratio,
the peak PHY data rate is about 25Mbps and 6.7Mbps for the downlink and the uplink, respectively.
Advanced Features of WiMAX
WiMAX has a scalable physical-layer architecture that allows for the data rate to scale easily with available
channel bandwidth.
For example, a WiMAX system may use 128, 512, or 1,048-bit FFTs (fast fourier transforms) based on
whether the channel bandwidth is 1.25MHz, 5MHz, or 10MHz, respectively.
Advanced Features of WiMAX
• Quality-of-service support:
The WiMAX MAC layer has a connection-oriented architecture that is designed to support a variety of
applications, including voice and multimedia services.
WiMAX system offers support for constant bit rate, variable bit rate, real-time, and non-real-time traffic
flows, in addition to best-effort data traffic.
WiMAX MAC is designed to support a large number of users, with multiple connections per terminal, each
with its own QoS requirement.
Advanced Features of WiMAX
• Robust security:
WiMAX supports strong encryption, using Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), and has a robust privacy and
key-management protocol.
The system also offers a very flexible authentication architecture based on Extensible Authentication Protocol
(EAP), which allows for a variety of user credentials, including username/password, digital certificates, and
smart cards.
The mobile WiMAX variant of the system has mechanisms to support secure seamless handovers for delay-
tolerant full-mobility applications, such as VoIP.
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