• Density and Pressure in Static Fluid

• Buoyant Forces, Archimedes’ Principle

• Moving Fluids and Bernoulli’s Equation
• Properties of Bulk Matter, stress and
Strain
Density, specific weight, specific gravity
• Density, r (decreases with rise in T)
• mass per unit volume (kg/m3 )
• for water density = 1000 kg/m3
• Specific Weight, g (Heaviness of fluid)
• weight per unit volume 𝜸 = 𝝆𝒈
• for water 𝛾 = 9.81 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3
• Specific Gravity = SG
• Ratio of the density of a fluid to the density of water
𝑺𝑮 = 𝝆𝒇 /𝝆𝒘 SG of Hg = 13.55
The cubic vessels contain the water at different
temperatures. Which water has the highest density?

𝟏. 𝟐.
1 𝑘𝑔 of 1 𝑘𝑔 of
water at water at
73°𝐶 273°𝐶
1𝑚 1𝑚

𝟑. 𝟒.
1 𝑘𝑔 of 1 𝑘𝑔 of
water at water at
273°𝐾 373°𝐶
1𝑚 3𝑚
 Example
A object has a mass of 36 grams and the volume of the
water (reference material) is 3 mL. Find (a) the density, (b)
the specific weight and (c) the specific gravity of the
object. Also, specify if the object will sink or float in the
water? The density of the water is 1 g/mL.
Solution:
(a) Density of object:
𝜌 = 𝑚/𝑣 = 36𝑔/3𝑚𝐿 = 12 𝑔/𝑚𝐿 = 12 𝑘𝑔/𝐿
(b) Specific weight:
𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔 = 12 𝑘𝑔/𝐿 × 9.81 𝑚/𝑠2 = 117.72 𝑁/𝑚𝐿
(C) Specific Gravity:
12𝑔Τ𝑚𝐿
SG = 𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 /𝜌𝐻2𝑂 = = 12
1𝑔Τ𝑚𝐿
The specific gravity is greater than 1 so the object will sink in the
water.
What is a Fluid?
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the influence
of a shear stress, no matter how small.
Fluids exist in a liquid or gas phase.
In solids, stress is proportional to strain, e.g., Hooke’s law
In fluids, stress is proportional to strain rate.

When a constant shear force

is applied, a solid eventually
stops deforming at some
fixed strain angle, whereas a
fluid never stops deforming
and approaches a constant
rate of strain.
6
Stress: Force per unit area. Stress and Strain
Normal stress: The normal
component of a force acting on
a surface per unit area.
Shear stress: The tangential
component of a force acting on
a surface per unit area.
Pressure: The normal stress
in a fluid at rest.
Zero shear stress: A fluid at
rest is at a state of zero shear
stress.

When the walls are removed or a liquid container is tilted,

a shear develops as the liquid moves to re-establish a
horizontal free surface. 7
Intermolecular bonds are strongest in solids and weakest in
gases.
Solid: molecules are at relatively fixed positions in some
pattern
Liquid: molecules rotate and translate relative to each other
Gas: molecules are far apart from each other and move
randomly

8
 Pressure
• If an object is immersed in a fluid, the
fluid exerts a force on every part of
the object’s surface.
• If the object and fluid are at rest, the
force is perpendicular to the element
of area on which it acts.

𝑷2 𝑨 − 𝑷1 𝑨 − 𝑴𝒈 = 0
𝑷2 = 𝑷1 + 𝝆𝒈(𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 ሻ
𝑴 = 𝝆𝑽 = 𝝆𝑨(𝒚2 − 𝒚1 ሻ
Pressure
• Let 𝑦1 = 0 be the free surface of
the liquid
• At the free surface the pressure is
atmospheric pressure 𝑃0 :
𝑃0 = 1.013 × 105 Pa at sea level
• Then, the pressure at any depth ℎ
will be

𝑷 = 𝑷𝟎 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉
Consider the three open containers filled with water.
How do the pressures at the bottoms compare ?

A. B. C.

1. 𝑷𝑨 = 𝑷𝑩 = 𝑷𝑪
2. 𝑷𝑨 < 𝑷𝑩 = 𝑷𝑪
3. 𝑷𝑨 < 𝑷𝑩 < 𝑷𝑪
4. 𝑷𝑩 < 𝑷𝑨 < 𝑷𝑪
5. Not enough information
The three open containers are now filled with oil,
water and honey respectively. How do the pressures
at the bottoms compare ?

honey
A. B. C.
oil water

1. 𝑷𝑨 = 𝑷𝑩 = 𝑷𝑪
2. 𝑷𝑨 < 𝑷𝑩 = 𝑷𝑪
3. 𝑷𝑨 < 𝑷𝑩 < 𝑷𝑪
4. 𝑷𝑩 < 𝑷𝑨 < 𝑷𝑪
5. Not enough information
 Calculating Crush Depth of a Submarine
A nuclear submarine is rated to withstand a pressure difference of
70 𝑎𝑡𝑚 before catastrophic failure. If the internal air pressure is
maintained at 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚, what is the maximum permissible depth ?

𝑃 = 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ

𝑃 − 𝑃0 = 70 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 7.1 × 106 𝑃𝑎 ; 𝜌 = 1 × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑃 − 𝑃0 7.1 × 106
ℎ= = 3
= 720 𝑚
𝜌𝑔 1 × 10 × 9.8
 Pascal’s Principle: Example
• Pressure force is transmitted through a fluid

Q. A large piston supports a car.

The total mass of the piston and
car is 3200 𝑘𝑔. What force must F2
A2
A1
be applied to the smaller piston to
support the car?

Pressure at the same height is the same!

𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐴1 𝜋 × 0.152
= 𝐹1 = 𝑚𝑔 = × 3200 × 9.8 = 490 𝑁
𝐴 1 𝐴2 𝐴2 𝜋 × 1.202
 Measuring Pressure
Q. What is height of mercury (Hg)
at 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 ?

𝜌𝐻𝑔 = 13.6 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3

𝑃 = 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ → ℎ = 𝑃/𝜌𝑔

1 × 105
ℎ= 4
= 0.75 𝑚
1.36 × 10 × 9.8

Atmospheric pressure can support a 10 meters high

column of water. Moving to higher density fluids 𝑝 = 𝑝0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
allows a table top barometer to be easily constructed.
 Gauge Pressure

Gauge Pressure is the pressure difference from atmosphere. (e.g. Tyres)

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 + 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒
Archimedes’ Principle and Buoyancy

Why do some things float and other things sink ?

 Archimedes’ Principle and Buoyancy
Objects immersed in a fluid experience a Buoyant Force!

𝐹𝐵 = 𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑉𝑔 (up) 𝐹𝐵 > 𝑊𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑

Partly immersed

𝐹𝐵 = 𝑊𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
Floating

𝐹𝐵 < 𝑊𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
Sinks

𝑊𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = 𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑉𝑔 (𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛ሻ

The Buoyant Force is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid !

 Archimedes’ Principle and Buoyancy

The hot-air balloon

floats because the
weight of air displaced
(= the buoyancy force)
is greater than the
weight of the balloon

The Buoyant Force is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid !

Which of the three cubes of length 𝑙 shown below has the
largest buoyant force?
water stone wood

water FB FB FB

m1g m2g m3g

A. B. C.

1. 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
2. 𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆
3. 𝒘𝒐𝒐𝒅
4. 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒖𝒐𝒚𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆
5. Not enough information
 Example Archimedes’ Principle and Buoyancy
Q. Find the apparent weight of a 60 𝑘𝑔 concrete block when you lift
it under water, 𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 = 2200 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Solution
Water provides a buoyancy force Fnet  mg  Fb  wapparent
Apparent weight should be less
Fb  mdisp water g  r waterVg
r water mg
wapp  mg 
Fb r con
m r water
r con  wapp  mg (1  )
V r con
1000
V
m  60  9.8  (1  )  321 N
w  mg r con 2200
 Floating Objects
Q. If the density of an iceberg is 0.86
that of seawater, how much of an
iceberg’s volume is below the sea?
𝐵𝑢𝑜𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝐵
= 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝐹𝐵 = 𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑔
𝐼𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚,
𝐹𝐵 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑔
𝐹𝐵 = 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑔
𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑉𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑔 → = = 0.86
𝑉𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝜌𝑖𝑐𝑒
A beaker of water weighs 𝑤1 . A block of weight 𝑤2 is
suspended in the water by a spring balance reading 𝑤3 .
What does the scale read?

1. 𝒘𝟏
2. 𝒘𝟏 + 𝒘 𝟐
3. 𝒘𝟏 + 𝒘 𝟑
4. 𝒘𝟏 + 𝒘 𝟐 − 𝒘𝟑
5. 𝒘𝟏 + 𝒘 𝟑 − 𝒘𝟐

scale
 Centre of Buoyancy: Example

The Centre of Buoyancy is given by the Centre of Mass of the displaced

fluid. For objects to float with stability the Centre of Buoyancy must be
above the Centre of Mass of the object. Otherwise Torque yield Tip !
 Fluid Dynamics
Laminar (steady) flow is where each
particle in the fluid moves along a
smooth path, and the paths do not cross.
The path is called a streamline.
Velocity is tangent to the streamline for
steady flow don’t cross.
Spacing of streamlines measures speed.
A set of streamlines act as a pipe for an
incompressible fluid.
Non-viscous flow – no internal friction
(water OK, honey not)
Turbulent flow above a critical speed.
Whirlpools appear, paths cross, and
become irregular and chaotic.
LAMINAR AT THE FRONT AND
TURBULENT AT THE BACK
Conservation of Mass: The Continuity Eqn.

The rate of flow is the same

at all cross-sections.
There can be no sources or
sinks of fluid.
Conservation of Mass: The Continuity Eqn.
A1 A2

fluid in  fluid out 

𝑣1 𝑣2
Q. How much fluid flows across each area in a time ∆𝑡:
𝑣2Δ𝑡
𝑣1 Δ𝑡

A1 A2

Δ𝑚 = 𝜌1 𝑉1 = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑣1 Δ𝑡 Δ𝑚 = 𝜌2 𝑉2 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑣2 Δ𝑡
Δ𝑚
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒: = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 C𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑛: 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑣2
Δ𝑡
 Continuity equation for
incompressible fluid

•Density is constant for incompressible fluid.

•The continuity equation then becomes

𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
Conservation of Mass: The Continuity Eqn.
Q. A river is 40m wide, 2.2m deep and flows at 4.5 m/s. It passes
through a 3.7-m wide gorge, where the flow rate increases to 6.0
m/s. How deep is the gorge?

𝐴2 = 𝑤2𝑑2

𝐴 1 = 𝑤 1 𝑑1

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∶ 𝐴1𝑣1 = 𝐴2𝑣2 → 𝑤1𝑑1𝑣1 = 𝑤2𝑑2𝑣2

𝑤1 𝑑1 𝑣 1 40 × 2.2 × 4.5
𝑑2 = = = 18 𝑚
𝑤2 𝑣2 3.7 × 6.0
 Conservation of Energy: Bernoulli’s Eqn.
What happens to the energy density of the fluid if I raise the ends ?

𝑣1Δ𝑡

y2
y1 𝑣2Δ𝑡

Energy per unit p1  12 r v12  r g y1  p2  12 r v22  r g y2 const

volume

Total energy per unit volume is constant

p  12 r v 2  r g y  const
at any point in fluid.
 Conservation of Energy: Bernoulli’s Eqn.
Q. Find the velocity of water leaving a tank through a hole in the
side 1 metre below the water level.

𝑃 + 12𝜌𝑣2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝐴𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑝: 𝑃 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚, 𝑣 = 0, 𝑦 = 1 𝑚

𝐴𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚: 𝑃 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚, 𝑣 =? , 𝑦 = 0 𝑚

𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦 = 𝑃 + 12𝜌𝑣2

𝑣= 2𝑔𝑦 = 2 × 9.8 × 1 = 4.4 𝑚/𝑠

 Which of the following can be done to increase the flow
rate out of the water tank ?

1. Raise the tank (↑ 𝑯ሻ

2. Reduce the hole size ℎ
3. Lower the water level (↓ 𝒉ሻ
4. Raise the water level (↑ 𝒉ሻ
5. None of the above 𝐻
Summary: fluid dynamics
Continuity equation: mass is conserved!
𝜌𝑣𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
For liquids:
𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 → 𝑣𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
(𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌, 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣, 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴ሻ

Bernoulli’s equation: energy is conserved!

𝑃 + 12𝜌𝑣2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
(𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃, 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌, 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣, ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑦ሻ
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle
• Venturi and pitot tubes
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle
• Scent pray
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle
• Swerving ball
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle
Properties of Bulk Matter
Reading assignment