UNIT -3

Types of data – Primary Vs Secondary data –

Methods of primary data collection – Survey
Vs Observation – Experiments – Construction
of questionaire and instrument – Validation of
questionaire – Sampling plan – Sample size –
determinants optimal sample size – sampling
techniques – Probability Vs Non–probability
sampling methods.
 INTRODUCTION

 Data collection is a term used to describe

a process of preparing and collecting data
 Systematic gathering of data for

a particular purpose from various

sources, that has been systematically
observed, recorded, organized.
 Data are the basic inputs to any decision

making process in business

CLASSIFICATION OF DATA

TYPES

PRIMARY SECONDARY
DATA DATA
 PRIMARY DATA

 Data that has been collected from first-hand-

experience is known as primary data.
 Primary data has not been published yet and is more
reliable, authentic and objective.
 Primary data has not been changed or altered by
human beings, therefore its validity is greater than
secondary data
 METHOD OF COLLECTION OF
PRIMARY DATA
 Observation method
 Oral Interviews
 Questionnaire method
 Schedule Method
 From Local Agents
 Survey Method
 Observation Method
Observation becomes a scientific tool and the
method of data collection, when it serves a
formulated research purpose, is systematically
planned and recorded and is subjected to checks
and controls on validity and reliability

Under observation – the information is sought by

way of investigator’s own direct observation
without asking from the respondent
 DIRECT PERSONAL OBSEVATION

STRUCTURED
UNSTRUCTURED
PARTICIPATIVE
NON -PARTICIPATIVE
 Structured vs. Unstructured Observation

Structured Observation – when the observation is

characterized by a careful definition of the units to
be observed, the style of recording the observed
information, standardized conditions of observation
and the selection of pertinent data of observation

Unstructured Observation – when it takes place

without the above characteristics
 Participant vs. Non-participant
This distinction depends upon the observer’s
sharing or not sharing the life of the group he is
observing
 Main advantages

:
 Subjective bias is eliminated
 The information relates to what is currently

happening
 This method is independent of respondent’s
willingness to respond
 Main Limitations
 It is expensive
 The information provided by this method is
very limited
 Unforeseen factors may interfere with the
observation task
 Interview
 It is one of the major techniques in
gathering data or information.
 It is a conversation between two or more
people where questions are asked by the
interviewer to elicit facts or statements from
the interviewee.
 Purposes and Uses of the Interview

 The researcher could gain some insights about

the study, the variables to be use, in making the
hypothesis and generalize questions and the
methods to be use statistically.
 The researcher could add some more significance
about the study.
 The researcher could collect some factual data in
order to be added for the support of the study.
 Advantage of the Interview

 Generating more valid and compete

information
 Interviewer can classify points or questions

which are vogue to the interviewee

 Seeing the sincerity in terms of answering the

questions
 Flexibility

 Greater complex questions can be asked

 Disadvantage of Interview

 Respondents would be hard to be contacted

 Time consuming

 Inaccurate in terms of getting numerical

data
 Inaccurate due to bias data given by the
interviewee in favourable with the study
 Difficult to make conclusion
 ORAL INTERVIEW
 Standardized interviews
a. Structured
b. Unstructured
 Non-standardized interviews
a. One to one
1.Face to face,
2.telephonic,
3.internet mediated interviews
b. One to many(focus group)
 Types or Classes of Interview

Structured Interview
Semi-structured Interview

Unstructured Interview
 Structured Interview
 Description and/or Aim of interview:
- Normally, structured interviews are done in a face-to-face format
or via telephone using a standard set of questions to obtain data
that can be aggregated because identical questions have been asked
of each participant.
 Nature of questioning route: fixed, given order, very standardized

 Type of question format/structure:

1. Open-ended

2. Closed-ended with ordered response choices

3. Closed-ended with unordered response choices

4. Partially closed-ended

 Role of probing: Little or none, perhaps only repeating or

clarifying instructions
 Semi – Structured Interview
 Description and/or aim of interview: “More or less open-ended questions are
brought to the interview situation in the form of an interview guide” (Flick,
1998 p. 94). From the beginning the focus is on gaining an understanding
based on textual information obtained. The level of depth of
understanding that the researcher pursues is used to characterize this type
of interview.
 Nature of questioning route: flexible, but usually a given set of questions is
covered, varying levels of standardization
 Type of question format/structure:
1. Open-ended, yet directed at obtaining particular information (content, topic,
aspects of theory, etc.)
2. In some cases, closed-ended style of questions are used
 Role of probing: Get the participant to expand upon their answer, give more
details, and add additional perspectives
 Unstructured Interview
 Description and/or Aim of interview:
Normally, unstructured interviews are done in a face-to-face format and some
would say you are trying to get participants to share stories. The researcher
starts from a position of wanting to be sensitive to how participants construct
their views and perspectives of things. Therefore, a goal is to allow the
participant’s structure to dominate.
 Nature of questioning route: ask questions to get people to talk about
constructs/variables of interest to the researcher.
 Type of question format/structure:
1. Open-ended – descriptive
2. Reactions to a given situation presented by the researcher
 Role of probing: Simply to get the participant of talk about a topic area,
normally probing questions are not directed, but rather asked to encourage
the participant to keep talking or to get back to the subject of interest.
 Other Interview Techniques

Focused Interview – to focus attention on

the given experience of the respondent
and its effects
The Interviewer has the freedom to decide
the manner and sequence of questions to
elicit/explore reasons and motives. The
main task is to confine the respondent to a
discussion of issues
Other Interview Techniques…
Clinical Interview – is concerned with broad
underlying feelings or motivations or with the
course of an individual’s life experience. Eliciting
information is left to the interviewer’s discretion
Non-Directive Interview – the interviewer's
function is simply to encourage the respondent to
talk about the topic with a bare minimum of
direct questioning. The interviewer often acts as
a catalyst to a comprehensive expression of the
respondent’s feelings and beliefs
 Interview Instrument
1. Interview Schedule 2. Interview Guide
 It is like a questionnaire.  It only provides ideas

 Used when the researcher and allows the

knows all the item to be interviewer to freely
included in the interview pursue relevant topics
about the research in depth.
problem.  The items provide for

flexibility in the
manner, order, and
language of
questioning.
 Steps in Interview
1. Set the feeling tone for the interview
2. Set up Equipment
3. Prepare the Person
4. Start the Tape Recorders
5. Let the Interviewee Talk
6. Get Consent
7. Word/Name list
 What to avoid in Interviews?
 Being unprepared
 Dress in a wrong manner

 Don’t argue with the interviewee’s answer in

the questions
 Don’t talk irrelevant manners

 Don’t unduly pressing the respondent to make

a reply
 Don’t appear too high above the respondent in
education, knowledge and social status.
 Don’t talk about irrelevant matters
 Questionnaire method

 Questionnaire- A questionnaire is a research

instrument consisting of a series of question and other
prompts for the purpose of gathering information from
respondent.
 Self administered questionnaire
 Telephone questionnaire
 Postal or mail questionnaire
 Types of Questions
 Open-ended Questions – They are used in qualitative
interviews where the respondent is made to explain why
certain things is done.
 Free Response Questions – They are asked in such a
way that the respondent does not limit the scope of his
answers or responses.
 Multiple Choices – It is the most commonly used type of
questioning. It is a list of a number of answers provided
for every question.
 Scaled Response – The respondents are given a range
of categories in which to express their feelings or
opinions.
 Types of Questions
 Checklist – This is a form of multiple choice
questions from which the respondents chooses one
or more response categories.
 Ranking Questions – This refers to an opinion

question where the respondent is asked to rank

comparatively the items listed either in ascending
or descending order.
 Dichotomous Question – There are only two

possible answers to the questions like the Yes – No

type.
 Question Sequence
 Proper sequence is needed to elicit valid
responses
 Sequence must be clear – that is, the relation

of one question to the next

 To establish rapport and to gain cooperation

from the respondent – difficult questions,

personal questions etc should preferably come
at the appropriate time rather than at the
beginning
 Question Formulation & Wording

 Phrasing the questions must be clear and

unambiguous
 Questions should be impartial and
unbiased
 Should be easily understood

 Should be simple (one idea at a time)

 Should be concrete

 Form of questions may be multiple choice

or open-ended
 Construction of a Questionnaire
 Doing a research with a specified topic
 Talking to people with knowledge about the topic

 Study the guidelines on what data should be

gathered
 Writing the Questionnaire

 Revise the Questionnaire

 Rewrite the Questionnaire

 Pre-test the Questionnaire

 Write the Questionnaire in the final form

 Guidelines in Formulation
 Decide on the specific information needed and
its sources.
 Prepare a list of sources of the specific
information needed.
 Put yourself in a place of the respondents.
 Understand the sequences in which these various
subjects should appear on the questionnaire.
 Decide on the type of question to use.
 Write the actual question.
 Provide proper spaces for the answers.
 Guidelines in Formulation
 Consider the facts needed to understand the results
properly.
 Examine the whole questionnaire.
 Try to time test yourself in answering the whole
questionnaire.
 See if the questions are clear, interesting, and cordial.
 Reconsider the hypothesis to see if the questions are
asked to answer the research problem.
 Pre-test the questionnaire.
 Have the final form reproduced in the quality and
quantity needed.
 Cover Letter
 – it would be a classified as a part of a questionnaire where in it is normally
written at the upper left corner of the questionnaire that entails the message
of the researcher to the respondents
Things that should be seen in a cover letter would be:
 Purpose of the questionnaire
 The study itself
 Thing to be gathered in the questionnaire for the
research
 Reasons it should be answered
 Due date of the questionnaire
 Guaranteed confidentiality for the respondents
 Expressions of thanks to the respondents
 Evaluating the Questionnaire
These are the following to consider in evaluating a questionnaire:
 Grammar
 Format

 Arrangement of Questions

 Relevant to the Study

 Number of Questions

 Format of the Questionnaire

 Reliability of Questionnaire

 Respondents
 SURVEY
 SURVEY- A detailed study of geographical area to gather
data attitudes, impressions, opinions, satisfaction level etc., by
polling a section of the population

 TYPE
1.CENSUS SURVEY
2.CONTINOUS OR REGULAR
SURVEY
3.AD-HOC SURVEY
Other Methods of Data Collection

1. Warranty Cards
2. Distributor or Store Audits
3. Pantry Audits
4. Consumer Panels
5. Mechanical Devices
6. Depth Interviews
7. Content Analysis
8. Projective Tests
 Primary Data
Merits Demerits
Targeted issued are Evaluated cost
addressed

Data interpretation is better Time consuming

More number of resources

High accuracy of data are required

Address as specific Inaccurate feedback

research issues
Required lot of skill with
Greater control labour.
 SECONDARY DATA
Data collected from a source that has
already been published in any form is
called as secondary data. The review of
literature in any research is based on
secondary data. Mostly from books,
journals and periodicals.
 SOURCES

 INTERNAL SOURCES
 Sales Records
 Marketing Activity
 Cost Information
 Distributor reports and feedback
 Customer feedback
 EXTERNAL SOURCE
 Published printed source
 Books
 Journals/periodicals
 Magazines/Newspapers
 Published Electronic Sources
 e-journals
 General websites
 Weblogs
 Contd…………
 Unpublished Personal Records
 Diaries
 Letters
 Government Records
 Census Data/population statistics:
 Health records
 Educational institutes records
 Public Sector Records:
 NGOs's survey data
 Other private companies records
 Secondary Data

Merits Demerits
Quick and cheap source No fulfill our specific
research needs
of data

Wider geographical Poor accuracy

area
Data are not up to date
Longer orientation
period
Poor accessibility in some
Leading to find cases
primary data
 EVALUATION OF SECONDARY DATA
Availability- It has to be seen that the kind of data you want is
available or not. If it is not available then you have to go for
primary data.
 Relevance- It should be meeting the requirements of the problem.
For this we have two criterion:-
 Units of measurement should be the same.
 Concepts used must be same and currency of data should not be
outdated.
 Accuracy- In order to find how accurate the data is, the following
points must be considered: -
 Specification and methodology used;
 Margin of error should be examined;
 The dependability of the source must be seen.
 Sufficiency- Adequate data should be available.
Data Collection Flow