CHAPTER FIVE:

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Objectives of the chapter
 Identify classification of data
 Explain source of data
 Describe methods of collecting data
 Define tools of data Gathering
Sources of Data
If your research is not theoretical then you need to plan for empirical data collection. The task of
data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research design chalked out.
While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the study, the researcher
should keep in mind the two sources from which data for a given research emanate. These are
primary and secondary sources.
Primary source is the original source from where we get firsthand information. Data collected
from a primary source is called primary data. Using primary sources researchers can collect
precisely the information they want. The primary data are those which are collected afresh and
for the first time, thus happen to be original in character.
On the other hand, a secondary source is one that is not the original source of the data for the
research. Most commonly used secondary sources are magazines, newspapers, journals,
proceedings, websites, and other related publications. Data obtained from any secondary source
are called secondary data. Secondary data are those which have already been collected by
someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process. In other words,
the original data have been collected by other researchers for a different purpose and a researcher
will be using the same data for another purpose. It is ready-made data.
 Primary Data Collection Techniques
Several methods can be used to collect primary data. The choice of the method depends upon the
purpose of the study, the resources available and the skills of the researcher. There are times
when the method most appropriate to achieve the objective of the study cannot be used because
of the constraints such as lack of resources and/or required skills. The following are the most
commonly used primary data collection techniques:

 Interview Method
 Questioner
 Observation
 Focus group discussion
 Interview Method
Interview is a data-collection technique that involves oral questioning of respondents, either
individually or as a group. Answers to the questions posed during an interview can be recorded

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by writing them down (either during the interview itself or immediately after the interview) or
by tape-recording the responses, or by a combination of both.

Types of interviews
Interviews may be classified into two categories as Structured Interviews and Unstructured
Interviews.
 Structured Interview
Structured interview is the one that is based on structured set of questions and is highly
standardized in form and content. The investigator asks a pre-determined set of questions,
using the same wording and order of questions as specified in the interview schedule. In the
structured interview method information is collected by the investigator by directly asking the
respondents on the basis of a schedule. It is not only the type of information that is prefixed but
also the specific questions to be asked, the language of the questions and their order. The answer
is also structured either in the form of Yes/No alternative answers or in the form of categorical
answers.
Here the interviewer’s job is to see that the respondents answer the questions systematically and
clearly. Interviewer can clarify the questions to the respondents only by repeatedly reading out
the questions or interpreting them in specific language. One of the main advantages of the
structured interview is that it provides uniform information, which assures the comparability of
data. Structured interviewing requires fewer interviewing skills than does unstructured
interviewing.
 Unstructured Interview
Unstructured interview is not essentially preplanned, structured, or ordered. The investigators
are given some broad topics upon which they have to collect information. The respondents are
free to narrate their experiences and incidents of life. Often the arrangement and wording of the
questions are to be determined on the spot by the investigator. If you are using unstructured
interview for your research then you may use a list of topics rather than fixed questions.

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Sequence of the topics has to be determined by the flow of the discussion. The type of
information that one cannot get through standardized structured interview is gained through this
method. However, being flexible it needs more skill on the part of the interviewer. It is extremely
useful in situations where either in-depth information is needed or little is known about the
area.
There are advantages and disadvantages associated with each type of method. Structured
interviews maximize reliability and are easier to classify and quantify. By contrast unstructured
interviews can give a greater insight and more in-depth understanding of the topic researched,
but need more expertise to control and more time for analysis.

Interview Techniques
An interview is called personal when the interviewer asks the questions face-to-face with the
interviewee. Personal interviews can take place in the home, at a shopping mall, on the street,
outside a movie theater or polling place, and so on.

Advantages of personal interview

 Detailed information can be obtained.
 The interviewer can do more things to improve the quality of the information received
than with another method.
 The ability to let the Interviewee see, feel and/or taste a product/situation.
 Longer interviews are sometimes tolerated. People may be willing to talk longer face-to-
face than to someone on the phone.

Disadvantages
 Personal interviews usually cost more per interview than other methods. This is
particularly true of in-home interviews, where travel time is a major factor.
Steps in Personal Interview
Though it seems simple to carry out a personal interview in practice it is challenging and skill
requiring. Respondents often react more to their feelings about the interviewer than to the
content of the questions. It is, therefore, important for the interviewer to ask the questions
properly, record the responses accurately, and probe meaningfully. To achieve these aims, the
interviewer must be trained to carry out the following procedures that foster a good interviewing
relationship.
 Communication aspects
Introduction (Legitimize the Respondent): Interviewers should immediately identify themselves
by name and organization, and provide any special identification. Introductory letters or other
information confirms the study’s legitimacy. The interviewer needs to tell the respondent as to
how he was chosen. However, the interviewer’s introductory explanations should be no more
detailed than necessary. Otherwise, excess information makes the respondent biased.
 Establishing a Good relationship
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 Successful interview is based on rapport-meaning a relationship of confidence and
understanding between interviewer and respondent. The rules laid down for establishing rapport
are meant to create a good interviewing relationship, which involves the following:
 Gathering the Data
The success of interview depends to a great extent upon how the questions are asked. There are
certain rules that guide the interviewer in asking the questions.
 Guidelines for asking the questions
 Interviewer has to be careful that his words or manner does not imply criticism,
surprise, approval, or disapproval of the respondent’s answers or of the questions he
raises during interview.
 The questions should be asked exactly as worded in the questionnaire. (This is true
for structured interview)
 The questions must be asked in the same order as they appear in the questionnaire.
Sequence of question is planned for continuity and for promoting a conversational
atmosphere.
 Ask every question specified in the questionnaire. It is the interviewer’s
responsibility to make certain that the respondent is fully exposed to each question
specified on the questionnaire. In answering one question, a respondent may also
answer another question appearing later in the interview.
 Clarify by repeating the questions that are misunderstood or misinterpreted.

 Probing
The respondents might have difficulty in putting their thought into words, or may give answers
that are unclear, inadequate, irrelevant, inconsistent and incomplete in form. To solve these
problems the interviewer asks probe questions for which he must know the objective of each
question. Probing is the technique of stimulating respondents to answer more fully and
relevantly.
There are different kinds of probing styles:
 Repeating the question: When the respondent does not understand the questions, or
misinterprets it, or is unable to make up mind for giving answer, then the interviewer should
simply repeat the question.
 Repeating the respondent’s reply: Simply repeating what the respondent has said as soon as
he has stopped talking is often an excellent probe. This should be done simultaneously while
writing the answers. This may stimulate further thought in the response.
 Asking neutral question or comment: Such questions enable to obtain clearer and fuller
information. Examples are “ Can you tell me more?”, “Anything else?”, Why do you think
like this?”
 Question Clarification: When the answer is unclear or is inconsistent with something
already said, the interviewer may feel that respondent failed to understand fully. In such a
case it is better to express that the investigator did not understand but should not immediately

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 contradict. It is important that the investigator takes the blame for failure to understand so as
not to appear to be cross-examining the respondent.
 Recording the Interview
The following points must be considered in recording interviews:
 Responses should be recorded during the interview. Jotting down the key words and phrases
is a must as the respondent is taking.
 Use the respondent’s own words
 Respondent’s answers should not be summarized or paraphrased
Telephone Surveys (Online Interview)
Interview can also conduct either through telephone or online.
Computer-Administered Telephone Survey (CATS): Here there is no interviewer. A computer
calls the phone number, conducts the interview, placed data into a file for later tabulation, and
terminates the contact. The questions are voice synthesized, and the respondent’s answer and
computer timing trigger continuation or disconnect.
Advantages
 Moderate cost.
 People can usually be contacted faster over the telephone than with other methods. If the
Interviewers are using CATI (computer-assisted telephone interviewing), the results can
be available minutes after completing the last interview.
 You can dial random telephone numbers when you do not have the actual telephone
numbers of potential respondents. (if there is no sampling frame)
 CATI software, such as The Survey System, makes complex questionnaires practical by
offering many logic options. It can automatically skip questions, perform calculations and
modify questions based on the answers to earlier questions. It can check the logical
consistency of answers and can present questions or answers choices in a random order
(the last two are sometimes important for reasons described later).
 Some software, such as The Survey System, can combine survey answers with pre-
existing information you have about the people being interviewed.
Disadvantages
 Call Screening: many people are reluctant to answer phone interviews and use their
answering machines to screen calls.
 Limited Call time: The growing number of workingwomen often means that no one in
home during the day. This limits calling time to a "window" of about 6-9 p.m. (when you
can be sure to interrupt dinner or a favorite TV program). Thanks to cellular phones this
problem is to a great extent minimized.
 Luck of Demonstration: You cannot show or sample products by phone. It is not possible
to use visual aids, maps, and other illustrations.
 Less response rate: the response rate in telephone interviews is lower than for
comparable face-to-face interviews. One reason is that respondents find it easier to
terminate a phone interview.

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  Questionnaire (Self-Administered Surveys)
A questionnaire is a written list of questions, the answers to which are recorded by the
respondent. A questionnaire is a type of survey where respondents write answers to questions
posed by the researcher on a question form. A number of respondents are asked identical
questions, in order to gain information that can be analyzed, patterns found and comparisons
made.
Questionnaires are extremely flexible and can be used to gather information on almost any topic
involving large or small numbers of people. The commonest type of questionnaire involves
closed choice or fixed questions where the respondent is required to answer by choosing an
option from a number of given answers, usually by ticking a box or circling an answer. These
types of questionnaires only gather straightforward, uncomplicated information, and only simple
questions can be asked. The open -ended questionnaire differs in that it allows the respondent to
formulate and record their answers in their own words. These are more qualitative and can
produce detailed answers to complex problems.
There are advantages and disadvantages associated with each type of method. Open ended
questions give a greater insight and understanding of the topic researched but may be difficult to
classify and quantify and must be carefully interpreted. Fixed choice questions are easy to
classify and quantify, require less time, effort and ingenuity to answer but do not allow the
respondents to qualify, develop or clarify their answers.

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Choosing b/n an interview and a questionnaire
The choice b/n an interview and a questionnaire is important and should be considered
thoroughly as the strength and weakness of the two methods can affect the validity of the
findings. Therefore, the selection b/n the two methods should be based on the following criteria:
 The nature of the investigation- If the study is about issues that respondents are
reluctant to discuss with an investigator, a questionnaire may be better choice as it
ensures anonymity.
 The geographical distribution of the study population - potential respondents are
scattered over a wide geographic area, you have no choice but to use a questionnaire,
interviewing will be very expensive.
 The type of study population - (example, illiterate, very young or very old, or
handicapped) in this case no option other than interview
The different ways of administering a questionnaire
A questionnaire can be administered in different ways:
 The mailed questionnaire-the most common approach to collecting information is to
send the questionnaire to prospective respondents by mail. Obviously this approach
presupposes that you have access to their addresses.
 Collective administration – one of the best ways of administering a questionnaire is
to obtain a captive audience such as students in a class room, people attending a
function, participants of a program or people assembled in one place.
 Administration in a public place- sometimes it is good to administer a questionnaire
in a public place such as shopping place, health center, pub, school etc.

THE QUESTIONNAIRE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

Questionnaire design is a long process that demands careful attention. Design begins with an
understanding of the capabilities of a questionnaire and how they can help your research. If it is
determined that a questionnaire is to be used, the greatest care goes into the planning of the
objectives.
Designing a good questionnaire always takes several steps
A) Defining the Objectives of the survey /concentrate on the content of the questionnaire
B) Writing the Questionnaire
Once we have states our objective clearly, we can compose our questions.
Main aspects of a questionnaire
B.1) What kind of questions do we ask? / Form/
In general, there are two types of questions one will ask, open format or closed format.
Open format questions are those that ask for unprompted opinions. In other words, there are
no predetermined set of responses, and the participant is free to answer however he
chooses. Open format questions are good for soliciting subjective data or when the range of
responses is not tightly defined. An obvious advantage is that the variety of responses should be
wider and more truly reflect the opinions of the respondents. This increases the likelihood of you

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receiving unexpected and insightful suggestions, for it is impossible to predict the full range of
opinion. It is common for a questionnaire to end with an open format question asking the
respondent for her unabashed ideas for changes or improvements.
Example: Why did you enroll for this course?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
Advantages of Open-Ended Questions:
 Greater freedom of expression
 No bias due to limited response ranges
 Respondent can qualify their answers
Open format questions have several disadvantages:
 There is no way to automatically tabulate or perform statistical analysis on them.
 More costly in both time and money
 Whenever more is asked of the respondent, the chance of tiring or boring the respondent
increases.
 Researcher / interviewer may misinterpret (and therefore misclassify) a response
 Time consuming to code
Closed ended format questions usually take the form of a multiple-choice question.
Types of Closed-ended questions
1. Name: Dichotomous
Description: Question offering two choices
Example: Did you watch television at all yesterday?
Yes / No
2. Name: Multiple
Description: Question offering three or more choices
Example: Which of these shops do you prefer?
Next / River Island / Gap Top Shop/ Top Man
3. Name: Likert scale
Description: Statement with which respondent shows the amount of agreement / disagreement
Example: Assessment by course-work is easier than assessment by examination
Neither agree nor
Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree
disagree
4. Name: Semantic differential
Description: Scale is inscribed between two bipolar words and respondent selects the point that
most represents the direction and intensity of his / her feelings
Example: The degree I am taking is.............
Interesting :_____:_____:_____:_____:_____:_____:_____: Boring
Useful :_____:_____:_____:_____:_____:_____:_____: Useless
Easy :_____:_____:_____:_____:_____:_____:_____: Difficult
5. Name: Rank order

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Description: Respondent is asked to rate or rank each option that applies. This allows the
researcher to obtain information on relative preferences, importance etc. Long lists should be
avoided (respondents generally find it difficult to rank more than 5 items)
Example: Please indicate, in rank order, your preferred Chewing gum, putting 1 next to your
favorite through to 5 for your least favorite.
 Poppotine
 Strawberry
 Special mint
 Wow
 Banana
6. Name: Numeric
Description: Respondent specifies a particular value (can include decimal places)
Example: How far (to the nearest kilometer) did you travel today to reach this supermarket?
________km
Closed format questions offer many advantages
 Saves time and money by restricting the answer set, it is easy to calculate percentages and
other hard statistical data over the whole group or over any subgroup of participants.
 Closed format questions also make it easier to track opinion over time by administering
the same questionnaire to different but similar participant groups at regular intervals.
 Finally closed format questions allow the researcher to filter out useless or extreme
answers that might occur in an open format question. Easy to code.
Disadvantages of Closed-Ended Questions
 Can draw misleading conclusions because of limited range of options
 Researcher / interviewer cannot deal with qualifications to responses e.g. "Yes, but….."
or "It depends" where only Yes/No are given as options
B.2) Question sequence
In order to make the questionnaire effective and ensure the quality to replies, researcher should
pay attention to the question sequence in preparing a questionnaire because it considerably
reduces the problem of understanding.
The following type questions should generally be avoided as opening questions;
 Question that lead to great strain on the memory or intellect of the respondent
 Question of personal and intimate character
Also, as a general rule, question sequence should go from general to specific because the answer
to the given question is a function of not only the question itself but also to all previous questions
as well.
B.3) Question formulation and wording
All questions should have the following characteristics
 Easy to be understood
 Simple and not ambiguous
 Make it Specific
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  The size should be kept to the minimum
 Concrete (conform) as much as possible to the respondents way of thinking
 Technical terms and vague expressions should be avoided
One example showing clarity of question to reduce interpretation problem
Clarity: This is probably the area that causes the greatest source of mistakes in
questionnaires. Questions must be clear, succinct, and unambiguous. The goal is to eliminate
the chance that the question will mean different things to different people. If the designer
fails to do this, then essentially participants will be answering different questions.
To this end, it is best to phrase your questions empirically if possible and to avoid the use of
necessary adjectives. For example, in asking a question about frequency, rather than
supplying choices that are open to interpretation such as:
 Very Often
 Often
 Sometimes
 Rarely
 Never
It is better to quantify the choices, such as:
 Every Day or More
 2-6 Times a Week
 About Once a Week
 About Once a Month
 Never
C) PILOTING YOUR QUESTIONNAIRE
Before you deliver any questionnaire, you should "pilot" it (i.e. test it) to check that it is going to
function effectively. There are a number of reasons why it is important to pilot a questionnaire:
 To test how long it takes to complete
 To check that the questions are not ambiguous
 To check that the instructions are clear
 To allow you to eliminate questions that do not yield usable data
Qualities of a Good Question
There are good and bad questions. The qualities of a good question are as follows:
1. Evokes the truth. Questions must be non-threatening. When a respondent is concerned about
the consequences of answering a question in a particular manner, there is a good possibility that
the answer will not be truthful. Anonymous questionnaires that contain no identifying
information are more likely to produce honest responses than those identifying the respondent. If
your questionnaire does contain sensitive items, be sure to clearly state your policy on
confidentiality.
2. Asks for an answer on only one dimension. The purpose of a survey is to find out
information. A question that asks for a response on more than one dimension will not provide the

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information you are seeking. For example, a researcher investigating a new food snack asks "Do
you like the texture and flavor of the snack?" If a respondent answers "no", then the researcher
will not know if the respondent dislikes the texture or the flavor, or both. Another questionnaire
asks, "Do you satisfied with the quality of our food and service?" Again, if the respondent
answers "no", there is no way to know whether the quality of the food, service, or both were
unsatisfactory. A good question asks for only one "bit" of information.
3. Can accommodate all possible answers. Multiple choice items are the most popular type of
survey questions because they are generally the easiest for a respondent to answer and the easiest
to analyze. Asking a question that does not accommodate all possible responses can confuse and
frustrate the respondent. For example, consider the question:
What brand of computer do you own?
A.IBM,PC
B. Apple
Clearly, there are many problems with this question. What if the respondent doesn't own a
microcomputer? What if he owns a different brand of computer? What if he owns both an IBM
PC and an Apple? There are two ways to correct this kind of problem.
The first way is to make each response a separate dichotomous item on the questionnaire. For
example:
Do you own an IBM PC? (circle: Yes or No)
Do you own an Apple computer? (circle: Yes or No)
Another way to correct the problem is to add the necessary response categories and allow
multiple responses. This is the preferable method because it provides more information than the
previous method.
What brand of computer do you own?
(Check all that apply)
__Donot own a computer
__IBM,PC
__Apple
__ Other
4. Has mutually exclusive options. A good question leaves no ambiguity in the mind of the
respondent. There should be only one correct or appropriate choice for the respondent to make.
An obvious example is:
Where did you grow up? __
A.country
B.farm
C. city
A person who grew up on a farm in the country would not know whether to select choice A or B.
This question would not provide meaningful information. Worse than that, it could frustrate the
respondent and the questionnaire might find its way to the trash.
5. Produces variability of responses. When a question produces no variability in responses, we
are left with considerable uncertainty about why we asked the question and what we learned
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from the information. If a question does not produce variability in responses, it will not be
possible to perform any statistical analyses on the item. For example:
What do you think about this report? __
A. It's the worst report I've read
B. It's somewhere between the worst and best
C. It's the best report I've read
Since almost all responses would be choice B, very little information is learned. Design your
questions so they are sensitive to differences between respondents. As another example:
Are you against drug abuse? (circle: Yes or No)
Again, there would be very little variability in responses and we'd be left wondering why we
asked the question in the first place.
8. Does not imply a desired answer. The wording of a question is extremely important. We are
striving for objectivity in our surveys and, therefore, must be careful not to lead the respondent
into giving the answer we would like to receive. Leading questions are usually easily spotted
because they use negative phraseology. As examples:
Wouldn't you like to receive our free brochure?
Don't you think the Congress is spending too much money?
9. Does not use emotionally loaded or vaguely defined words. This is one of the areas
overlooked by both beginners and experienced researchers. Quantifying adjectives (e.g., most,
least, majority) are frequently used in questions. It is important to understand that these
adjectives mean different things to different people.
10. Does not use unfamiliar words or abbreviations. Remember who your audience is and
write your questionnaire for them. Do not use uncommon words or compound sentences. Write
short sentences. Abbreviations are okay if you are absolutely certain that every single respondent
will understand their meanings. If there is any doubt at all, do not use the abbreviation. The
following question might be okay if all the respondents are accountants, but it would not be a
good question for the general public.
What was your AGI last year? ______
11. Is not dependent on responses to previous questions. Branching in written questionnaires
should be avoided. While branching can be used as an effective probing technique in telephone
and face-to-face interviews, it should not be used in written questionnaires because it sometimes
confuses respondents. An example of branching is:
1. Do you currently have a life insurance policy ? (Yes or No)
If no, go to question 3
2. How much is your annual life insurance premium ? _________
These questions could easily be rewritten as one question that applies to everyone:
1. How much did you spend last year for life insurance ? ______ (write 0 if none)
12. Does not ask the respondent to order or rank a series of more than five items. Questions
asking respondents to rank items by importance should be avoided. This becomes
increasingly difficult as the number of items increases, and the answers become less reliable.
This becomes especially problematic when asking respondents to assign a percentage to a
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 series of items. In order to successfully complete this task, the respondent must mentally
continue to re-adjust his answers until they total one hundred percent. Limiting the number of
items to five will make it easier for the respondent to answer.

 Direct observation
Observation is a purposeful, systematic and selective way of watching and listening to an
interaction or phenomenon as it takes place. There are many situations in which observation is
the most appropriate method of data collection, for example, when you want to learn about the
interaction in a group, study dietary patterns of the population, ascertain the function performed
by a worker, or study the behavior or personality traits of an individual. It is also appropriate
when other methods cannot provide accurate/full information because of several reasons.
Advantages
 Observation is the only option to collect certain types of data like animal and child
behavior.
 Avoiding respondent filtering and forgetting
 We can collect the original information at the time it occurs.
 It is less restrictive. It can capture the whole event as it occurs in its environment.
 No interviewer’s bias.
Limitations
 It is a slow and expensive process. (Costly and time consuming)
 Observation is limited to as a way to learn about the past.
 There always the possibility of observer bias
 There is a possibility of incomplete observation and/or recording
 When individuals or groups become aware that they are being observed, they may change
their behavior.
Conducting an Observational Study
 The type of Study:
Simple Observation: More of exploration. Its practice is not standardized, as one would expect,
because of the discovery nature of exploratory research.
Systematic Observation: employs standardized procedures, trained observers, schedules for
recording, and other devices for the observer that mirrors the scientific procedures of other
primary data methods. It uses more structured and predefined methods.
 Focus group discussions (FGD):

A focus group is typically composed of seven to twelve participants who are unfamiliar with
each other and conducted by a trained interviewer. You may be interested to study “the
determinants of tax evasion in SNNP regional state”. You may create a permissive environment
in the focus group that nurtures different perceptions and points of view, without pressuring

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participants to vote, plan, or reach consensus about tax evasion in the region. In FGD the
facilitator sets the agenda and lets the participants brainstorm on the agenda thereby specifying
the points of discussion. The group discussion is conducted several times with similar types of
participants to identify trends and patterns in perceptions.
 Collection of secondary data
Secondary data are data already available i.e., they refer to the data which have already been
collected and analyzed by someone else. The role of the researcher is to extract the information
for purpose of the study.
 Secondary data may be published or unpublished
 Secondary data are used for three purposes.
 To fill a need for specific reference or citation on some point (to learn from the
past).
 To minimize the costs of doing primary research.
 To serve as sole basis for a research study.

 The main advantage of secondary data is :

 that it can be found quickly and cheaply
 Helps much on past events and distant places, where the researcher cannot afford to
collect the data right now.

 Limitation of Secondary data are:

 Question of reliability and validity
 Personal bias- the use of information from news papers, and magazines may have the
problem of personal bias as the writers are likely to exhibit less rigorousness and
objectivity than one would expect in research reports.
 It is difficult to assess the accuracy of the information because one knows little about
the research design or the conditions under which the research took place.
 It is often out of date: a study made five years ago may not be relevant today.
 It may not be adequate.

Classification of secondary data

 By source
There are two types of secondary data sources, internal and external. Internal sources are those
documentations that are generated within an organization by the organization. They include
internal financial and accounting reports, production summaries, sales summaries, etc. External
sources are created outside the organization and are more varied than internal sources.
By category
Based on this base of classification, we can have five categories of secondary data:

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  Computerized database
 Periodicals
 Books
 Government documents
 Special collections such as university publications (Master’s these, doctorial
dissertation and research records), company publications such as such as financial
reports, company policy statements, speeches, sales literature and product
specifications.
 By medium
Another way to classify secondary data is as hard copy, local area, online, or internet.

Above all, any secondary data must be evaluated for appropriateness and quality (legitimacy).
By testing for appropriateness we mean the data is not collected for the particular research that
we have at hand. Rather it is collected for another but similar research. Hence, to what an extent
can we say the data collected by others for their own consumption feet our case? Especially The
measurements used, variables used, timing (stability), and topical coverage are of great concern
for appropriateness. With regard to quality, one has to check the accuracy and completeness of
the data.

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