HOW TO ESTIMATE TOTAL FIBER OPTIC LINK LOSS

HOW TO ESTIMATE TOTAL FIBER OPTIC LINK LOSS

Example:
Assume a 40km single mode link at 1310 nm with 2
connector pair and 5 splices. Calculate the link loss.
HOW TO ESTIMATE FIBER OPTIC LINK DISTANCE
Example:
Assume a Fast Ethernet Single mode link at 1310nm with 2 connector
pairs and 5 splices. Estimate the possible distance of the fiber before
dissipating the optical power to a value below the receiver sensitivity.
What are the factors that will determine the maximum distance of the
fiber? Assume that the optical budget is -8 dB and the total link loss is
-34 dB.
WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

MICROWAVE
COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM

Microwave Link Design 8

9
What is Microwave Communication

• A communication system that utilizes

the radio frequency band spanning 2
to 60 GHz.
• Electromagnetic waves between 30
and 300 GHz are called millimeter
waves (MMW) instead of microwaves
as their wavelengths are about 1 to
10mm.

10
What is Microwave Communication

Small capacity systems generally employ

the frequencies less than 3 GHz while
medium and large capacity systems
utilize frequencies ranging from 3 to 15
GHz.

Frequencies > 15 GHz are essentially

used for short-haul transmission.
Microwave Link Design 11
 Advantages of Microwave Radio

• Less affected by natural calamities

• Less prone to accidental damage
• Links across mountains and rivers are
more economically feasible
• Single point installation and maintenance
• Single point security
• They are quickly deployed

12
Categories of Microwave Systems:
Long haul – used to carry information for relatively long
distances, such as interstate.

13
Categories of Microwave Systems:
Short haul – used to carry information for relatively short distances, e.i.
between cities within the same state.

14
 Microwave Propagation
Line-of-Sight Considerations

Microwave Link Design 15

 Line-of-Sight Considerations

• Microwave radio communication requires

a clear line-of-sight (LOS) condition
• Under normal atmospheric conditions, the
radio horizon is around 30 percent beyond
the optical horizon
• Radio LOS takes into account the concept
of Fresnel ellipsoids and their clearance
criteria

Microwave Link Design 16

 Line-of-Sight Considerations

Clearance criteria to be satisfied under normal

propagation conditions
• The direct path between the transmitter and the
receiver needs a clearance above ground of at
least 60% of the radius of the first Fresnel zone
to achieve free space propagation conditions
• Clearance of 100% or greater at k=4/3
• In case of space diversity, the antenna can have
a 60% clearance at k=4/3 plus allowance for tree
growth, buildings (usually 3 meter)

Microwave Link Design 17

 Line-of-Sight Considerations

 Fresnel Zone - Areas of constructive and

destructive interference created when
electromagnetic wave propagation in free space is
reflected (multipath) or diffracted as the wave
intersects obstacles.

 Fresnel zones are specified employing ordinal

numbers that correspond to the number of half
wavelength multiples that represent the difference
in radio wave propagation path from the direct
path
 The Fresnel Zone must be clear of all
obstructions.

Microwave Link Design 18

 Concept of ‘Fresnel Zone’
When MW beam is transmitted from an antenna, the beam
gradually spreads conically (Huygen’s Principle). The total
MW energy reaching antenna B is the sum of the energies
passing through various zones called FRESNEL’S
ZONES.
Maximum energy (primary energy) is concentrated in
the central zone, called first fresnel’s zone.

B
A
Fresnel Zone and Fresnel Radius
If a reflected signal is bounced within an odd-numbered Fresnel zone, it would arrive at the
receiver in “phase addition” with the direct signal.

20
Fresnel Zone and Fresnel Radius
Fresnel zone – the area where the interference is
constructive.

21
Radius of the 1st Fresnel Zone is calculated as

F1= 17.3 (d1d2/fGHzdKm)1/2

where: F1= Radius of 1st Fresnel Zone

d1 & d2= Distances in Km of the towers
at the point where radius is to
be calculated.
f = Frequency in GHz
d = Hop distance in Km.
• Radius of the first Fresnel zone
R=17.32(x(d-x)/fd)1/2

where d = distance between antennas (in Km)

R= first Fresnel zone radius in meters
f = frequency in GHz

R y
x d=x+y

Microwave Link Design 23

Fresnel zone radius, (F1) in Metric System:

d1( km) d 2( km) d1( km) d 2( km)

F1( m)  547.1 F1( m) 17.3
f ( MHz ) D( km) f ( MHz ) D( km)
24
 Fresnel zone radius, (F1) in English System:

d1( mi ) d 2( mi ) d1( mi ) d 2( mi )
F1( ft )  2280 F1( ft )  72.1
f ( MHz ) D( mi ) f (GHz ) D( mi )

nth Fresnel zone radius (Fn):

Fn  F1 n

Fresnel zone clearance (Fc) Fc  0.6 F1

- it takes into account the unusual
conditions that occur in the
atmosphere.

25
K-FACTOR
Definition
K is a factor which when multiplied by the actual
earth’s radius, gives the value of the modified
earth’s radius employed in profile chart to make
the MW beam a straight line.
K is ‘Effective earth radius factor’
i.e. factor to interpolate the curvature
of propagation (of MW beam) also into
base line of path-chart so that we
represent earth curvature a well as
beam curvature
 K = Effective Earth’s Radius / True Earth’s Radius

WHERE: True Earth’s Radius= 6,371 Km

k=4/3=1.33, Standard atmosphere with normally refracted

Variations of the ray curvature as a function of k

K=1
K=
K=0.5

K=0.33

True Earth’s curvature

= 6,371 Km

Microwave Link Design 28

The amount and direction of bending subjected by
the MW beam is defined
 either by the Refractive Index Gradient dN/dh
(where N is the Radio Refractivity and h is the
height of the layer above the surface of the earth)
 or very often by the Effective Earth’s Radius
Factor K.
It can be Shown that
K-Factor= 157/(157+dN/dh)
Here,
N (Radio Refractivity) = 7.6(P/T)+3.73x105(e/T2)

Where, P = Total Atmospheric Pressure in

Millibar
T = Absolute Temperature in 0Kelvin.
e = Water Vapour Pressure in Millibar.
Change in the value of K from 1 to infinity
have less influence upon the received signal
(excepting multipath fading).

 For K<1, the path is vulnerable to extreme

multipath fading.
 For K>1, path is susceptible to blackout
fading.
MICROWAVE PROPAGATION
Profile Charts
 LOS Profiling
• One of the best way to determine if your site
locations provide an efficient LOS path is
"profiling.“
• There are two methods of profiling used to
determine the existence of a usable LOS path
for your multichannel radio system.
• You can determine the existence of an LOS path
using a profile map of the terrain on a nonlinear
graph.
• Nonlinear graphs take into account the refraction
caused by the Earth's atmosphere.
To  plot  using nonlinear graph paper, perform
the following procedures:
 
(a) Determine the scale for the elevation and
distances involved
(b) Draw a line on the contour map between the two
proposed sites.  Measure the length of this line
and convert it to the distance between the two
points.
(c) Determine the elevation at each site from the
contour lines
Note: If intervening obstructions exist on the path , or if the lowest point of the line drops
below the curvature of the Earth, poor communications result.
How to plot path profiles
 Ideally, we have to plot the path taken by the rays
for normal , sub-normal & super-normal conditions.
 If we plot the path profile (using details obtained
from Survey maps) on plain graph paper, curvature
of Earth is not accounted for.
 Hence, for convenience of analysis , bending of
radio path to be interpolated in earth curvature for
all conditions (normal , sub-normal & super-
normal ) and using such curved-abscissa graph
sheets, path profiles to be plotted
 Hence, we have to find effective earth radius
before plotting radio path on profile-chart
 Profile Chart for K= 4/3 (Normal
condition)

H
E
I
G
H
T
in
m

Distance in km
rofile Chart for K= 2/3 (Sub-normal condition)

H
E
I
G
H
T
in
m

Distance in km
 Profile Chart for K= Infinity
(Super-normal condition)

H
E
I
G
H
T
in
M
FADING AND FADE MARGIN

Microwave Link Design 46

 FADING AND FADE MARGIN
• Variation in signal level is caused by natural weather
disturbances (rain, snow, hail, fog, cool air over warm
air), man made disturbances (irrigation, multiple
transmission path, irregular earth surfaces and
terrain).

• Fading is defined as the variation of the strength of a

received radio carrier signal due to atmospheric
changes and/or ground and water reflections in the
propagation path.

• FADE MARGIN – additional loss added to the normal

path loss to accommodate temporary fading.

Microwave Link Design 47

 Fading and Fade margins

• Multipath fading
- Flat fading
- Frequency-selective fading
• Rain fading
• Refraction-diffraction fading (k-type
fading)

Microwave Link Design 48

 FADING AND FADE MARGIN
FM = 30 log D + 10 log (6ABf) – 10 log (1-R) – 70

 30 log D – multipath effect

 10 log (6ABf) – terrain sensitivity
 10 log (1-R) – reliability objectives
 70 – constant

 Fm – Fade Margin R – reliability ( 1.e., 99.99% = 0.9999)

 D- distance (km) (1- R) – reliability obj. (400-km route)
 F- frequency (GHz A – roughness factor (4- over H2O, 1 over average
terrain , 0.25 for rough, mountainous terrain)

Microwave Link Design 49

 FADING AND FADE MARGIN

Fm = 30 log D + 10 log (6ABf) – 10 log (1-R) – 70

 B- factor to convert a worst-month probability to an annual prob.

 1 – worst month basis
 0.5 for humid area
 0.25 for average inland areas
 0.125 for very dry or mountainous areas

Microwave Link Design 50

 FADING AND FADE MARGIN

Fm = 30 log D + 10 log (6ABf) – 10 log (1-R) – 70

 B- factor to convert a worst-month probability to an annual prob.

 1 worst month basis
 0.5 for humid area
 0.25 for average inland areas
 0.125 for very dry or mountainous areas

Microwave Link Design 51

 FADING AND FADE MARGIN
Example:
Determine the Fade Margin for the following conditions: distance
between sites = 40 km; frequency = 1.8 GHz; smooth terrain; humid
climate; and a reliability objective of 99.99%.

Microwave Link Design 52

 Fading and Fade margins

• Multipath Fading is the dominant fading

mechanism for frequencies lower than
10GHz. A reflected wave causes a
multipath, i.e.when a reflected wave
reaches the receiver as the direct wave
that travels in a straight line from the
transmitter
• If the two signals reach in phase then the
signal amplifies. This is called upfade

Microwave Link Design 53

 Fading and Fade margins

• Upfademax=10 log d – 0.03d (dB)

where d is the path length in Km

• If the two waves reach the receiver out of

phase they weaken the overall signal. A
location where a signal is canceled out by
multipath is called null or downfade

• As a thumb rule, multipath fading, for radio

links having bandwidths less than 40MHz and
path lengths less than 30Km is described as
flat instead of frequency selective
Microwave Link Design 54
 Fading and Fade margins

Flat fading
• A fade where all frequencies in the channel are
equally affected.There is barely noticeable
variation of the amplitude of the signal across the
channel bandwidth
• If necessary flat fade margin of a link can be
improved by using larger antennas, a higher-
power microwave transmitter, lower –loss feed
line and splitting a longer path into two shorter
hops
• On water paths at frequencies above 3 GHz, it is
advantageous to choose vertical polarization

Microwave Link Design 55

 Fading and Fade margins

Frequency-selective fading
• There are amplitude and group delay distortions
across the channel bandwidth
• It affects medium and high capacity radio links
(>32 Mbps)
• The sensitivity of digital radio equipment to
frequency-selective fading can be described by
the signature curve of the equipment
• This curve can be used to calculate the
Dispersive Fade Margin (DFM)

Microwave Link Design 56

 Fading and Fade margins

DFM = 17.6 – 10log[2(f)e-B/3.8/158.4] dB

f = signature width of the equipment
B = notch depth of the equipment

 Modern digital radios are very robust and immune

to spectrum- distorting fade activity. Only a major
error in path engineering (wrong antenna or
misalignment) over the high-clearance path could
cause dispersive fading problems

Microwave Link Design 57

 Fading and Fade margins
 Rain Fading
Rain attenuates the signal caused by the
scattering and absorption of electromagnetic
waves by rain drops
It is significant for long paths (>10Km)
It starts increasing at about 10GHz and for
frequencies above 15 GHz, rain fading is the
dominant fading mechanism
Rain outage increases dramatically with
frequency and then with path length

Microwave Link Design 58

 Fading and Fade margins

– Microwave path lengths must be reduced in areas

where rain outages are severe
– The available rainfall data is usually in the form of
a statistical description of the amount of rain that
falls at a given measurement point over a period of
time. The total annual rainfall in an area has little
relation to the rain attenuation for the area
– Hence a margin is included to compensate for
the effects of rain at a given level of availability.
– Increased fade margin (margins as high as 45 to
60dB) is of some help in rainfall attenuation fading.

Microwave Link Design 59

 Fading and Fade margins
• Reducing the Effects of Rain
– Multipath fading is at its minimum during periods of
heavy rainfall with well aligned dishes, so entire path
fade margin is available to combat the rain
attenuation (wet-radome loss effects are minimum
with shrouded antennas)

– When permitted, crossband diversity is very effective

– Route diversity with paths separated by more than

about 8 Km can be used successfully

Microwave Link Design 60

 Fading and Fade margins

– Radios with Automatic Transmitter Power

Control have been used in some highly
vulnerable links

– Vertical polarization is far less susceptible

to rainfall attenuation (40 to 60%) than are
horizontal polarisation frequencies.

Microwave Link Design 61

 Microwave Link

Interference
analysis Frequency
Planning

Propagation losses Rain

attenuation
Branching Fading
Link Budget
losses Predictions Diffraction-
refraction
Quality losses
Other Losses
and
Multipath
Availability
propagation
Calculations
62
 Loss / Attenuation Calculations

The loss/attenuation calculations

are composed of three main
contributions
– Propagation losses
(Due to Earth’s atmosphere and terrain)
– Branching losses
(comes from the hardware used to
deliver the transmitter/receiver output
to/from the antenna)

Microwave Link Design 63

Loss / Attenuation Calculations

– Miscellaneous (other) losses

(unpredictable and sporadic in
character like fog, moving objects
crossing the path, poor equipment
installation and less than perfect
antenna alignment etc)

This contribution is not calculated but is

considered in the planning process as
an additional loss
64
 Propagation Losses
• Free Space Path Loss – is defined as the loss
incurred by an electromagnetic wave as it
propagates in a straight line through a vacuum
with no absorption or reflection of energy from
nearby objects.
• ideal condition
• no EMW actually lost or dissipated
• merely caused by spreading of waves as
it propagates
• also known as spreading loss

Microwave Link Design 65

Path Loss or Free Space Loss

Microwave Link Design 66

Path Loss or Free Space Loss

Microwave Link Design 67

Path Loss or Free Space Loss

Microwave Link Design 68

Microwave Link Design
 Propagation Losses

 Vegetation attenuation (provision should be taken for

5 years of vegetation growth)

L=0.2f 0.3R0.6(dB)

f=frequency (MHz)
R=depth of vegetation in meter’s (for R<400m)

70
 Propagation Losses

• Obstacle Loss –also called Diffraction Loss or Diffraction

Attenuation. One method of calculation is based on knife
edge approximation.

Having an obstacle free 60% of the Fresnel zone gives 0

dB loss

First Fresnel Zone

16dB 20dB
6dB
0 dB 0 dB

71
 Propagation Losses

• Gas absorption
– Primarily due to the water vapor and oxygen in
the atmosphere in the radio relay region. The
absorption peaks are located around 23GHz for
water molecules and 50 to 70 GHz for oxygen
molecules.

– The specific attenuation (dB/Km)is strongly

dependent on frequency, temperature and the
absolute or relative humidity of the atmosphere.

Microwave Link Design 72

Gas attenuation versus frequency

Total specific
gas attenuation 23GHz
1.0 (dB/Km)
T=40oC
RH=80%

0.4
T=30o
RH=50%
Frequency (GHz)
0 25 50
Microwave Link Design 73
 Propagation Losses

• Attenuation due to precipitation

– Rain attenuation is the main contributor in the
frequency range used by commercial radio
links

– Rain attenuation increases exponentially with

rain intensity

Microwave Link Design 74

 Propagation Losses
– The specific attenuation of rain is dependent on many
parameters such as the form and size of distribution
of the raindrops, polarization, rain intensity and
frequency
– Horizontal polarization gives more rain attenuation
than vertical polarization
– Rain attenuation increases with frequency and
becomes a major contributor in the frequency bands
above 10 GHz
– The contribution due to rain attenuation is not
included in the link budget and is used only in the
calculation of rain fading

Microwave Link Design 75

Atmospheric Effects in Space Wave Propagation
•Atmosphere consists of gas molecules and water vapor.
•So, density is higher compared to free space.
•For standard atmosphere; Pressure, Temperature,
Humidity decrease linearly with altitude.
•Thus Refractive Index of air depends upon height.
•This gives rise to phenomenon like
1.Reflection
2.Refraction
3.Scattering
4.Fading, etc.
REFLECTION
•Occurs when waves strike smooth surface, such as water,
smooth earth, etc.
•Both Reflected and Direct wave reaching the receiver ensures
reduced signal strength.
•These may arrive either in phase, or out of phase, or partially
out of phase.
•For perfectly smooth surface, and under condition of
amplitude being equal and exactly out of phase at receiver, the
received wave may get completely cut off.
off
•This is FADING.
FADING
Hence care should be taken during survey that there are no
good reflectors in the path.
 Ground Reflection

• Reflection on the Earth’s surface may give

rise to multipath propagation
• The direct ray at the receiver may interfered
with by the ground-reflected ray and the
reflection loss can be significant
• Since the refraction properties of the
atmosphere are constantly changing the
reflection loss varies.

Microwave Link Design 78

 Signal strength versus reflection
coefficient

+10 Amax
0

Amin
-20
Signal
Strength
(dB)
0.2 0.6 1.0
Total reflection coefficient
Microwave Link Design 79
Link Budget

Microwave Link Design 80

 Link Budget

The link budget is a calculation involving

the gain and loss factors associated with
the antennas, transmitters, transmission
lines and propagation environment, to
determine the maximum distance at which
a transmitter and receiver can successfully
operate

Microwave Link Design 81

 Link Budget

• The gains from the antenna at each end are

added to the system gain (larger antennas
provide a higher gain).
• The free space loss of the radio signal is
subtracted. The longer the link the higher the
loss
• These calculations give the fade margin
• In most cases since the same duplex radio setup
is applied to both stations the calculation of the
received signal level is independent of direction

Microwave Link Design 82

 Radio path link budget

waveguide
Transmitter 1 Transmitter 2
Splitter Splitter

Receiver 1 Receiver 2
Antenna Gain

Antenna Gain
Output Branching Propagation
Power (Tx) Losses Losses Branching
Losses
Received
Power (Rx)

Fade Margin
Receiver threshold Value 83
 Link Budget
Receive Signal Level (RSL)

RSL = Po – Lctx + Gatx – Lcrx + Gatx – FSL

Link feasibility formula

RSL  Rx (receiver sensitivity threshold)

Po = output power of the transmitter (dBm)

Lctx, Lcrx = Loss (cable, connectors, branching unit)
between transmitter/receiver and antenna(dB)
Gatx = gain of transmitter/receiver antenna (dBi)
FSL = free space loss (dB)
84
 Link Budget

The FADE MARGIN is calculated with

respect to the receiver threshold level for a
given bit-error rate (BER).

The radio can handle anything that affects

the radio signal within the fade margin but if
it is exceeded, then the link could go down
and therefore become unavailable

Microwave Link Design 85

 Frequency planning

• The objective of frequency planning

is to assign frequencies to a network
using as few frequencies as possible
and in a manner such that the quality
and availability of the radio link path
is minimally affected by interference.
The following aspects are the basic
considerations involved in the
assignment of radio frequencies
Microwave Link Design 86
 Frequency planning

Determining a frequency band that is suitable

for the specific link (path length, site location,
terrain topography and atmospheric effects)
Prevention of mutual interference such as
interference among radio frequency channels in
the actual path, interference to and from other
radio paths, interference to and from satellite
communication systems
Correct selection of a frequency band allows the
required transmission capacity while efficiently
utilizing the available radio frequency spectrum

Microwave Link Design 87

 Frequency planning

• Assignment of a radio frequency or

radio frequency channel is the
authorization given by an
administration for a radio station to use
a radio frequency or radio frequency
channel under specified conditions.

Microwave Link Design 88

 Star configuration
• The link carrying the traffic out of the hub
should use a frequency band other than the
one employed inside the cluster

U
U f2 VP

f1 HP f1 HP
L U
f2 VP
f1 HP
U U

Microwave Link Design 89

Frequency planning for different network topologies

Chain/cascade configuration

f1 HP f1 VP f1 HP
U L U

Microwave Link Design 90

 Ring configuration

• If the ring consisted of an odd number of

sites there would be a conflict of duplex
halves and changing the frequency band
would be a reliable alternative. L

U f1 HP
U f1 VP
f1 VP

f1 HP
U
f1 VP L f1 VP
L
Microwave Link Design 91
 Interference fade margin
• To accurately predict the performance of a digital
radio path, the effect of interference must be
considered.
• Interference in microwave systems is caused by the
presence of an undesired signal in a receiver.
• When this undesired signal exceeds certain limiting
values, the quality of the desired received signal is
affected.
• To maintain reliable service, the ratio of the desired
received signal to the (undesired) interfering signal
should always be larger than the threshold value.

Microwave Link Design 92

 Interference fade margin
• In normal unfaded conditions the digital signal can
tolerate high levels of interference but in deep fades it is
critical to control interference.

• Adjacent-channel interference fade margin (AIFM) (in

decibels) accounts for receiver threshold degradation due
to interference from adjacent channel transmitters

• Interference fade margin (IFM) is the depth of fade to the

point at which RF interference degrades the BER to 1x
10-3 . The actual IFM value used in a path calculation
depends on the method of frequency coordination being
used.

Microwave Link Design 93

 Interference fade margin

I = T- (T/I)
Where:

I = maximum interfering power level

(dBm)

T= radio threshold for a 10-6 BER (dBm)

T/I = threshold-to-interference value

(dB) from the T/I curve for the particular
radio
Microwave Link Design 94
 Interference fade margin

For each interfering transmitter, the receive

power level in dBm is compared to the
maximum power level to determine whether the
interference is acceptable. The T/I curves are
based on the actual lab measurements of the
radio.
 
Composite Fade Margin (CFM) is the fade
margin applied to multipath fade outage
equations for a digital microwave radio
 

Microwave Link Design 95

 System Reliability
 
There  are  many  factors  that  affect  system  reliability.
System reliability is the ratio of usable circuit time to
total circuit time. The circuit is usable when traffic can
be passed without errors.

• For  voice  telephone  traffic,  the  required  level  of

reliability  is  98%.

• For  digital  data  traffic,  the  required reliability rate

increases to 99.9%.
 System Reliability
 
Two major factors affect system reliability;
1. the propagation support received, and
2. the equipment reliability.  

You achieve a high state of equipment reliability

through proper maintenance and by
establishing sufficient   backup  equipment  to
 prevent system  down  time  due  to
equipment failure.
 System Reliability
 
There are several techniques at your disposal to help you
increase the reliability of your system.

a. Length/Number of Hops.  
• One way to obtain greater reliability is to decrease the distance
between radio relay points.
• Conversely, the fewer hops required also increases system
reliability.  You must weigh the benefit and loss of each factor in
determining the number and distance of system links.

b. Threshold Levels.  For a signal from a receiver to be usable, it

must be stronger than the receiver noise level.

You find this threshold level in the equipment TMs.  To increase
reliability, plan hops so that the signal level is higher than the
threshold level of the receiver you use.
The antenna gain and transmission line loss affect your
signal.  Ensure your signal is sufficient to overcome the
effect of signal fade.

NOTE: Generally, the relationship between reliability

and fade margin is in the applicable TM.

Experience shows that a 40 decibel (dB) fade margin

yields a reliability of 99.9%.

For example:

If  the  signal  strength  at  the  receiver  is - 10  dB  and

 the receiver threshold level is -50 dB, then the fade
margin is 40 dB.
 problems
1. Determine the fade margin for a 30-km microwave hop. The RF frequency
is 10 GHz. terrain is water, and the reliability objective is 99.995%.
2. Determine the power density for a radiated power of 1000 W at a distance
20 km from an isotropic antenna.
3. For a radiated power Prad = 10 kW, determine the voltage intensity at a
distance 20km from the source.
4. Describe the effects on power density if the distance from a transmit
antenna is tripled.
5. Determine the radio horizon for a transmit antenna that is 100 ft high and a
receiving antenna that is 50 ft high and for antennas at 100 m and 50 m.
6. Determine the maximum usable frequency for a critical frequency of 10
MHz and an angle of incidence of 45°.
7. The power density at a point from a source is 0.001 µW, and the power
density at is 0.00001µW; determine the attenuation in decibels.

100
Thank you

Microwave Link Design 101

Example:
Consider a space-diversity microwave radio system
operating at an RF carrier frequency of 1.8 GHz.
Each station has a 2.4-m-diameter parabolic
antenna that is fed by 100m of air-filled coaxial
cable.
The terrain is smooth, and the area bas a humid
climate. The distance between stations is 40 km, A
reliability objective of 99.99% is desired.

Determine the system gain.

Microwave Link Design 102
Microwave Link Design 103
Solution:
Fm = 30 log D + 10 log (6ABf) – 10 log (1-R) – 70
Fm = 30 log 40 + 10 log[(6)(4)(0.5)(1.8)] - 10 log(1 – 0.9999) - 70
= 48.6 + 13.34 + 40 – 70 = 31.4 dB

To obtain path loss or FSL:

Lp = 92.4 + 20 log f (GHz) + 20 log D(km)
Lp = 92.4 + 20 log 1.8 + 20 log 40
= 129.55 dB
From Table 24-3 branching loss, feeder loss and antenna gain are as follows:
Lb = 2 +2 = 4 dB
Lf = 10.8 dB (100 m + 100 m = 200 m)
At = Ar = 31.2 dB

Substituting into Equation 24-13 gives us system gain (net loss):

Gs = (31.2 x 2) – 129.55 – 31.4 – 4- 4 = 113.35 dB

The results indicate that for this system to perform at 99.99% reliability with the
given terrain, distribution networks, transmission lines, and antennas, the
transmitter output power must be at least 113.35 dB more than the minimum
receive signal level. Microwave Link Design 104
Receiver Threshold
Carrier-to-noise (C/N) ratio is probably the most important parameter
considered when evaluating the performance of a microwave communications
system.

The minimum wideband carrier power (Cmin) at the input to a receiver that will
provide a usable baseband output is called the Receiver Threshold or,
sometimes, Receiver Sensitivity.
Cmin = C/N + N dBm
The receiver threshold is dependent on the wideband noise power present at the
input of a receiver, the noise introduced within the receiver, and the noise
sensitivity of the baseband detector.

Minimum transmit power: Pt = Gs + Cmin

105
Before Cmin can be calculated, the input noise power must be determined. The input noise
power is expressed mathematically as:

Microwave Link Design 106

Example:

Microwave Link Design 107

CARRIER-TO-NOISE vs. SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO

Carrier-to-noise (C/N) is the ratio of the wideband "carrier

(actually, not just the carrier but rather the carrier and its
associated sidebands) to the wideband noise power (the
bandwidth of the receiver).

C/N can be determined at an RF or an IF point in the receiver.

Essentially, C/N is a predetection (before the FM demodulator) signal-
to-noise ratio.

Signal to-noise (SIN) is a post detection (after the FM

demodulator) ratio. At a baseband point in the receiver, a
single voice-band channel can be separated from the rest of
the baseband measured independently.

At an RF or IF point in the receiver, it is impossible to separate a

single voice-band channel from the composite FM signal.

108
CARRIER-TO-NOISE vs. SIGNAL-TO-NOISE
RATIO

For example, a typical bandwidth for a single

microwave channel is 30 MHz.

 The bandwidth of a voice-band channel is 4 kHz.

 C/N is the ratio of the power of the composite RF

signal to the total noise power in the 30-MHz
bandwidth.

S/N is the ratio of the signal power of a single

voice-band channel to the noise power in a 4-kHz
bandwidth.

109
Noise Factor and Noise Figure

NOISE FACTOR (F) AND NOISE FIGURE (NF) are figures of merit
used to indicate how much the signal-to-noise ratio deteriorates as a
signal passes through a circuit or series of circuits. Noise factor is
simply a ratio of input signal-to-noise ratio to output signal-to-noise. In
other words, a ratio of ratios.

F = Input S/N ( unitless ratio)

output S/N

NF = 10 log input S/N (dB)

output S/N

NF = 10 log F

Microwave Link Design 110

Microwave Link Design 111
Microwave Link Design 112
Sample Problem 24-4

Microwave Link Design 113

Microwave Link Design 114
Microwave Link Design 115
 2
 4d 
FSL   
  

FSL  32.4  20 log 10 f ( MHz )  20 log 10 d ( km )

FSL  92.4  20 log 10 f (GHz )  20 log10 d ( km )

FSL  36.6  20 log10 f ( MHz )  20 log10 d ( mi )

FSL  96.6  20 log 10 f (GHz )  20 log 10 d ( mi )

116
Microwave Parameters:
Parabolic Antenna Gain, G

General Equation:

2
 D 
G   
  

where: D = antenna diameter in m

λ = signal wavelength in m
η = efficiency

117
Microwave Parameters:

Antenna Gain for Typical Values of η (0.55 to 0.75):

2
D
G  6 
 
Parabolic Antenna Gain for Typical Values of η (0.55 to 0.75) in Metric system:

G  42.4  20 log10 f ( MHz )  20 log10 D( m )

G  17.8  20 log10 f (GHz )  20 log10 D( m )

118
Microwave Parameters:

Parabolic Antenna Gain for Typical Values of η (0.55 to 0.75) in English

system:

G  52.6  20 log10 f ( MHz )  20 log10 D( ft )

G  7.5  20 log10 f (GHz )  20 log10 D( ft )

119
Microwave
Parameters:
System Reliability Estimates

Propagation Reliability for Non-diversity Systems:

R  1  Undp  x100%

where: Undp = the path unavailability or

fade probability

1.5 3 6  FM / 10
Undp  abf d (1.25x10 ) x10
where: d = path length in mi
f = frequency in GHz
FM = fade margin in dB

120
Diversity
Uses more than one transmission path or
method of transmission available bet. a
transmitter and a receiver. Its purpose is to
increase the reliability of the system by
increasing its availability

Frequency diversity
Modulates two different RF carrier frequencies
with the same information. At the destination,
both are demodulated but the one yields the
better quality is selected.

121
 Space diversity

The output of a transmitter is fed to two or

more antennas that are physically separated
by an appreciable number of wavelengths.

Receiver diversity

Use more than one receiver for a single RF

channel.

122
System Reliability Estimates

Propagation Reliability for Diversity Systems:

R  (1  U div ) x100%

where: Udiv = the path unavailability or fade probability

U
ndp
U 
div I
div

where: Idiv = the diversity improvement factor

123
System Reliability Estimates

Equipment Reliability:

R  (1  U ) x100%
where: U = unavailability or probability of outage

MTTR
U 
MTBF
where: MTTR = mean time to repair
MTBF = mean time before failure

124
Received Signal Level, RSL
It is the difference from the nominal transmitter
output, antenna transmit and receive gain, from that
of the fixed losses of transmit and receive side and its
path loss.

RSL  Po(dBm)  L G L G L
TX T FS R RX

where: LTX and LRX = transmitter and receiver total insertion losses in dB
GT and GR = transmit and receive antenna gains in dB

125
where: LFS = Free Space Loss in dB
Po(dBm) = Transmitter Output Power in dBm

RSL > or = FM + Threshold (receiver)

where:
FM = Fade Margin in dB
Threshold (receiver) = receiver minimum RF input in dBm; Cmin

C
Cmin   N ; N  KTB
N
126
System Gain, Gs (dB)
It is the difference between the nominal output power of a
transmitter and the minimum rf input power to a receiver.

S ( dB )  Po ( dBm)  min .RF

G input ( dBm)

P  min . RF input  losses  gains

o( dBm) (dBm)

127
  FM L
FS ( dB )  L f ( dB )  Lb( dB )  GT ( dB )  G R ( dB )
G
s ( dB ) dB

where: Lf(dB) = transmission line loss between the distribution network and
its respective antenna (dB)
Lb(dB) = total coupling or branching loss in the distribution
network between the output of a transmitter or receiver and the
transmission line (dB)

128
Passive Repeater
Gain of a Passive Repeater

 4A cos  
G p ( dB )  20 log  2 
  

where: A = the actual area of the passive repeater in (ft2 )

λ = wavelength = Vc/f in (ft)
ά = alpha, the angle bet. the incident wave and the
reflected wave in (°)

129
Net Path Loss, NPL:
It is the total loss of the system.

( dB )  GT  LFS1  G p  LFS 2  GR
NPL

130
Thank you

Microwave Link Design 131

PROBLEMS:

1. A plane passive reflector 10x16 ft is erected 21 miles from one active site and
only 1 mile from the other and ά = 50°. The operating frequency is 2000 MHz.
Determine the net path loss of the system.

2. In a microwave communication system with a normal temperate and average

terrain has the following parameters:

a. Operating frequency = 4 GHz

b. Path length = 25 mi
c. Tx/Rx antenna diameter = 3 ft.
d. Transmitter Output Power = 1 W
e. Threshold(receiver) = - 80 dBm
f. Tx total insertion loss = 5 dB
g. Rx total insertion loss = 4 dB

Determine: LFS(dB) , NPL, FM(dB) & % Reliability

132