COMMUNICATIONS

Refers to the
sending, reception
and processing of
information by
electrical means
 Block Diagram of a Communications System

Information Recipient or
Source Noise Destination

Transmitter Channel Receiver

Information Source
selects symbols (letters, numbers,
words, sounds, etc) from an alphabet
(or ensemble) of possible symbols

Types of Information

radio, telephony, telegraph,

broadcasting, radar, radio, telemetry,
and radio aids for navigation
Transmitter
a collection of electronic components
and circuits designed to convert the
information into a signal suitable for
transmission over a given

Processes Involved

modulation, multiplexing, encoding,

encryption, and pre-emphasis (FM)
Channel
the medium by which the electronic
signal is sent from one place to
another

Receiver
another collection of electronic
components and circuits that accept
the transmitted message from the
channel and convert it back into a
form understandable by humans
 Processes Involved

demodulation, demultiplexing,
decoding, decryption, and
de-emphasis (FM)

Noise
any unwanted form of electrical
energy, random and aperiodic in
character which tends to mutilate the
desired signal
Basic Requirements

1. Accurate Communication
2. Fast Communication

Types of Signal
1. ANALOG
telephone, radio broadcast or TV
signals
2. DIGITAL
comprises of pulses at discrete
intervals of time
Transmission Paths

1. Line Communication
guided media which include
coaxial cable, twisted pair, optical
fibers and waveguides
2. Radio Communications
unguided media
 Basic Concepts

Frequency
Wavelength
 number of times a  distance between two points of
particular
similar cycles of a periodic wave
phenomenon
occurs at a given
time Bandwidth
 expressed in hertz  portion of the electromagnetic
(1/1 sec) Hz spectrum occupied by a signal
 Nomenclature of Frequency Bands
NAME FREQUENCIES METRIC SUBDIVISION APPLICATIONS

Extremely Low 30 – 300 Hz - Power line transmission

Frequencies (ELF)
Voice Frequencies (VF) 300 Hz – 3 kHz - Audio

Very Low Frequencies 3 – 30 kHz Myriametric waves Government and military comms.,
(VLF) submarine comms.
Low Frequencies (LF) 30 – 300 kHz Kilometric waves Aeronautical and marine
(long waves) navigation
Medium Frequencies 300 kHz – 3 MHz Hectometric waves AM radio broadcast
(MF) (medium waves)
High Frequencies (HF) 3 – 30 MHz Decametric waves Shortwave radio broadcast,
(short waves) amateur radio and CB comms.
Very High Frequencies 30 – 300 MHz Metric waves FM broadcast
(VHF)
Ultra High Frequencies 300 MHz – 3 GHz Decimetric waves UHF TV, land mobile services and
(UHF) cellular telephones, microwave
comms.

Super High 3 GHz – 30 GHz Centimetric waves Satellite comms., personal

Frequencies (SHF) communication systems
Extremely High 30 – 300 GHz Millimetric waves Radar
Frequencies (EHF)
*microwave
*microwave frequency
frequency band:
band: 11 GHz
GHz to
to 300
300 GHz
GHz
**frequencies
**frequencies beyond EHF are optical frequencies
beyond EHF are optical frequencies
 Significant Historical Events in Electronic
Communications
DATES EVENTS
1830 American scientist and professor Joseph Henry transmitted the first
practical electrical signal .

1837 Samuel Finley Breeze Morse invented the Telegraph and patented it
in 1844.

1843 Alexander Bain invented the facsimile.

1847 James Clerk Maxwell postulated the Electromagnetic Radiation

Theory.
1860 Johann Philipp Reis, a German who produces a device called
Telephone that could transmit a musical tone over a wire to a distant
point but incapable of reproducing it.

1864 James Clerk Maxwell, a Scottish physicist established the Theory of

Radio or Electromagnetism which held the rapidly oscillating
electromagnetic waves exist and travel at through space with the speed
of light.
DATES EVENTS
1875 Thomas Alba Edison invented Quadruplex telegraph, doubling
existing line qualities.
J. M. Emile Baudot invented the first practical Multiplex Telegraph
and another type of telegraphy codes which consisted of pre – arranged
5 - unit dot pulse.
A. C. Cowper introduced the first Facsimile Machine or writing
telegraph using a stylus.

1876 Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas A. Watson invented the

Telephone capable of transmitting voice signals (March 10).

1877 Thomas Edison invented the Phonograph.

1878 Francis Blake invented the Microphone Transmitter using platinum

point bearing against a hard carbon surface.

1882 Nikola Tesla outlined the basic principles of radio transmission and
reception.

1887 Heinrich Hertz detected electromagnetic waves with an oscillating

circuit and establishes the existence of radio waves.
DATES EVENTS
1889 Hertz discovered the progressive propagation of electromagnetic
action through space using a spark – gap wave generator, to measure
the length and velocity of electromagnetic waves and their direct
relation to light and heat as their vibration, reflection, refraction and
polarization.

18790 Almon Strowger introduced the dial – switching system transmitting

the desired telephone number electrically without the assistance of a
human telephone operator.

1895 Marchese Guglielmo Marconi discovered ground – wave radio

signals.

1898 Guglielmo Marconi established the first radio link between England
and France.

1901 Reginald A. Fessenden transmits the world’s first radio broadcast

using continuous waves. Marconi transmits telegraphic radio messages
from Cornwall, England to Newfoundland, first successful
transatlantic transmission of radio signals.

1904 John Ambrose Fleming invented the Vacuum Tube Diode.

DATES EVENTS

1906 Reginald Fessenden invented Amplitude Modulation (AM).

Lee De Forest added a grid to the diode and produced triode.
Ernst F. W. Alexanderson invented the Tuned Radio Frequency
Receiver (TRF) an HF Alternator to producing AC contributing to
better voice broadcasting.

1907 Reginald Fessenden developed the Heterodyne Receiver.

1918 Edwin H. Armstrong invented the Superheterodyne Receiver.

1923 J. L. Baird and C. F. Jenkins demonstrated the transmission of Black

and White Silhouettes in motion. Vladymir Zworykin and Philo
Farnsworth developed television cameras, the Iconoscope and the
Image Detector. The first practical television was invented in 1928.

1931 Edwin Armstrong invented the Frequency Modulation, greatly

improving the quality of the signals.

1937 Alec Reeves invented the Pulse Code Modulation for digital encoding
of PCM signals.

1945 Arthur C. Clarke proposed the use of satellites for long distance radio
transmissions.
DATES EVENTS

1946 AT&T introduced the first mobile telephone system for the public
called the MTS (Mobile Telephone System).
1947 John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley introduced the
bipolar junction transistors which started a new trend in radio
receiver design; December 4.

1951 First transcontinental microwave system began operation.

1954 J. R. Pierce showed how satellites could orbit around the earth and
effect transmission with earth stations.

1957 Troposcatter Radio Link was established between Florida and Cuba by
using antennas and high powered transmitters to force microwaves
beyond LOS obstructed by earth’s curvature bulge.
Russia launched Sputnik I, the first active earth satellite, capable of
receiving, amplifying and retransmitting information to earth stations.

1958 Jack Kilby developed the first Monolithic Integrated Circuit

Semiconductor chip with active and passive elements.

1959 Robert Noyce invented the Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit
(VLSIC).
DATES EVENTS

1962 AT&T launched Telstar I, the first satellite to received and transmit
simultaneously. A year later, Telstar II was launched and used for
telephone, TV fax and data transmission .

1965 COMSAT and INTELSAT launched the first communications satellite

code name Early Bird at approximately 34000 km above sea level.

1967 K. C. Kao and G. A. Bockam of Standard Telecommunications

Laboratories in England proposed the use of cladded fiber cables as new
transmission medium.

1977 First commercial use of optical fiber cables

1983 Cellular telephone networks introduced.

1991 Tim Berners – Lee developed World Wide Web (WWW).

 Self Test
Principles of Communications

Choose the letter which answer each question.

1. He is recognized as the Father of Electromagnetism
a. Joseph Henry
b. Andre Marie Ampere
c. Hans Christian Oersted
d. Michael Faraday

2. An American scientist who discovered electromagnetic self – induction.

He was a pioneer of modern forecasting techniques.
a. Joseph Henry
b. Andre Marie Ampere
c. Hans Christian Oersted
d. Michael Faraday
 Self Test
Principles of Communications

Choose the letter which answer each question.

3. He discovered Photoelectricity through a photosensitive element,
Selenium that could carry current in direct proportion to the amount
of light that struck it.
a. Jonas Jacob Berzelius
b. Charles Babbage
c. James Maxwell
d. Michael Faraday

4. The Father of Electrodynamics who exposed the phenomenon of

electromagnetism following the discovery of magnet needle by
Oersted.
a. Joseph Henry
b. Andre Marie Ampere
c. James Maxwell
d. Michael Faraday
 Self Test
Principles of Communications

Choose the letter which answer each question.

5. The range of frequencies represented in a signal.
a. Beam width
b. Crisp
c. Guard band
d. Bandwidth

6. It refers to the sending, receiving and processing of information by

electronic means
a. Communications
b. Telemetry
c. Telephony
d. Broadcasting
 Self Test
Principles of Communications

Choose the letter which answer each question.

7. The big breakthrough in electronics communications came with the
invention of the ____________ in 1844.
a. Transistor
b. Phonograph
c. Telegraph
d. Telephone

8. Term for transmission of printed picture by radio (ECE Board April

1998).
a. Facsimile
b. ACSSB
c. Xerography
d. Television
 Self Test
Principles of Communications

Choose the letter which answer each question.

9. A Scottish physicist who established the Theory of Radio or
Electromagnetism which held that rapidly oscillating electromagnetic
waves exist and travel at through space with the speed of light.
a. James Maxwell
b. Andre Marie Ampere
c. Hans Christian Oersted
d. Michael Faraday

10. The first words transmitted over the telephone

a. Mr. Watson, come here, I want you
b. What God has wrought
c. This is the day
d. None of these
 Self Test
Principles of Communications

Choose the letter which answer each question.

11. Most of the communications receiver is in form of ____________ type.
a. Superheterodyne
b. TRF
c. Single – ended
d. High level

12. He was the one who developed the wireless telegraph.

a. Edison
b. Armstrong
c. Marconi
d. Bell
 Self Test
Principles of Communications

Choose the letter which answer each question.

13. He invented the first practical Multiplex Telegraph and another type of
telegraphy codes which consisted of pre – arranged 5 – unit dot pulse
patterns. This multiplexer allowed signals of up to 6 different
telegraph machines to be transmitted over a single wire pair.
a. JM Emile Baudot
b. AC Cowper
c. Thomas Edison
d. Thomas Doolittle

14. Introduced the first Facsimile Machine or writing telegraph using

stylus.
a. JM Emile Baudot
b. AC Cowper
c. Thomas Edison
d. Alexander Graham Bell
 Self Test
Principles of Communications

Choose the letter which answer each question.

15. Invented the Microphone transmitter using platinum point bearing
against a hard carbon surface
a. Francis Blake
b. Thomas Watson
c. Thomas Doolittle
d. Henry Hunnings
16. What type of field does Faraday shield stop?
a. Common
b. Array
c. Electrostatic
d. Magnetostatic
 Self Test
Principles of Communications

Choose the letter which answer each question.

17. Which of the following is not normally tested in a transmitter?
a. Power
b. Modulation
c. Frequency
d. Amplitude

18. What other term is essentially synonymous with beating?

a. Heterodyning
b. Scrambling
c. Filtering
d. Suppressing
 Self Test
Principles of Communications

Choose the letter which answer each question.

19. Term in Communication that is referred “to send in all directions”.
a. Announce
b. Broadcast
c. Transmit
d. Media

20. Invented the telephone transmitter using granular carbon and thin
platinum diaphragm and a gold – plated electrode
a. Nikola Tesla
b. Henry Hunnings
c. Thomas Watson
d. AC Cowper
 Self Test
Principles of Communications

Choose the letter which answer each question.

21. He introduced the Dial Switching System, transmitting the desired
telephone number electrically without the assistance of a human
telephone operator
a. Thomas Edison
b. Almon Strowger
c. JJ Thomson
d. Lee De Forest

22. An Italian physicist who invented the first wireless telegraph, initially
transmitting messages over a distance of 1 mile but later improved it to
8000 miles in 1902. He also made the first successful transatlantic
radio transmission.
a. Francis Blake
b. Ernst Alexanderson
c. KF Braun
d. Guglielmo Marconi
 Self Test
Principles of Communications

Choose the letter which answer each question.

23. The Father of Quantum Theory. He introduced the revolutionary idea
that the energy emitted by an oscillator could take only on discrete
values or quanta
a. Guglielmo Marconi
b. John Fleming
c. Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck
d. Christian Hulsmeyer

24. Who developed the CRT capable of tracing curves on phosphor

screen?
a. John Fleming
b. Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck
c. KF Braun
d. Christian Hulsmeyer
 Self Test
Principles of Communications

Choose the letter which answer each question.

25. He invented the superheterodyne receiver
a. Edwin Armstrong
b. Alec Reeves
c. Veldemar Poulsen
d. Boris Rosing

26. He developed a simple radio echo device to prevent ship collisions. He

was considered as the forerunner of RADAR
a. Veldemar Poulsen
b. Christian Hulsmeyer
c. Boris Rosing
d. Reginald Fessenden
 Self Test
Principles of Communications

Choose the letter which answer each question.

27. Who invented the Pulse Code Modulator for digital encoding of PCM
signals
a. Alec Reeves
b. Edwin Armstrong
c. Boris Rosing
d. Reginald Fessenden

28. He was the one who developed the mathematical solution to a

complex repetitive waveform
a. Carson
b. P. H. Smith
c. J. Fourier
d. Y. Uda
 Self Test
Principles of Communications

Choose the letter which answer each question.

29. The volume of transaction proceed in a specific unit of time
a. Response time
b. Throughout
c. Availability
d. Reliability

30. ____________ is a device that measures the internal open circuit

voltage of an equivalent noise generator having an impedance of 600
ohms and delivering noise power to a 600 ohms load.
a. Phosphometer
b. Barometer
c. Reflectometer
d. Voltmeter
 MODULATION
process by which some
mixing of low frequency characteristic of a high
signals modulating signal) frequency sine wave is
with high frequency varied in accordance with
signals (carrier signal) the instantaneous value of
the signal

imposition of information modification of one signal

on a given signal by another signal
 Types of Modulation
a. According to carrier used

1. Continuous Wave 1. Pulse

carrier is a sinusoid carrier is a train of
pulses (discrete)
Types of Modulation
a. According to the method used

1. Analog
modulated parameter 2. Digital
is made proportional to the change the form of a
modulating signal given signal
Reasons for Modulation

1. To reduce the antenna lengths

2. To reduce noise / interference

3. For frequency assignments

4. For multiplexing

5. To overcome equipment limitations

Analog Modulation

1. Amplitude Modulation
 2. Angle Modulation

a. Frequency Modulation b. Phase Modulation

Digital Modulation

1. Pulse Code Modulation

2. Delta Modulation
Consider any sinusoid

ѵ(t)= V sin (ωt + ѳ)

ѵ = instantaneous amplitude
V = peak amplitude
ω = 2Πf; angular frequency
t = instantaneous time
ѳ = phase angle in radians
amplitude

phase
t = 1/f
NOTE
Any type of modulation should be reversible
(get back to the original signal) by process of
demodulation.
 Basic Emission Classification
First Symbol – Type of Modulation of the Main Carrier
Emission of unmodulated carrier N

Emission in which the main carrier is amplitude

-> Double – sideband A

-> Single – sideband, full carrier H

-> Single –sideband, reduced or variable level carrier R

-> Single – sideband, suppressed carrier J

-> Independent sideband B

-> Vestigial sideband C

Emission in which the main carrier is angled modulated

-> Frequency Modulation F

-> Phase Modulation G

 First Symbol – Type of Modulation of the Main Carrier
Emission in which the main carrier is angled and amplitude D
modulated simultaneously
Emission of pulses
-> Sequence of unmodulated pulses P
-> Sequence of pulses
->> Modulated in amplitude K
->> Modulated in width/duration L
->> Modulated in position/phase M
->> The carrier is angle – modulated during the Q
period of the pulse
->> Combination of the foregoing or is produced V
by other means
Cases not covered above or combination of two or more of the W
following modes: amplitude, angle, angle and phase
Cases otherwise not covered X
 Second Symbol – Nature of the Signals Modulating the
Main Carrier
No modulating signal 0

Digitally keyed carrier 1

Digitally keyed tone 2

Analog 3

Multichannel digital 7

Multichannel analog 8

Combination 9

Cases not otherwise covered X

 Third Symbol – Type of Information to be Transmitted
No information transmitted N

Telegraphy – for aural reception A

Telegraphy – for automatic reception B

Facsimile C

Data transmission, telemetry, telecommand D

Telephony (including sound broadcasting) E

Television (video ) F

Combination of the above W

Cases otherwise not covered X

 Fourth Symbol – Details of Signals
Two – condition code with elements of differing numbers A
and/or durations

Two – condition code with elements of the same number and B

duration without error correction

Two – condition code with elements of the same number and C

duration with error correction

Four – condition code in which each condition represents a D

signal element

Multicondition code in which each condition represents a E

signal element

Multicondition code in which each condition or combination F

of conditions represents a character
 Fourth Symbol – Details of Signals
Sound of broadcasting quality (monophonic) G

Sound of broadcasting quality (stereophonic or quadraphonic) H

Sound of commercial quality J

Sound of commercial quality with the use of frequency K

inversion or band splitting

Sound of commercial quality with separate frequency – L

modulated signals to control the levels of
demodulated signal

Monochrome M

Color N

Combination of the above W

Cases not otherwise covered X

 Fifth Symbol – Nature of Multiplexing
None N

Code – division multiplex C

Frequency – division multiplex F

Time – division multiplex T

Combination of frequency – division multiplex and W

time – division multiplex

Other types of multiplexing X

AMPLITUDE MODULATION
A system of
modulation in which
the amplitude of the
carrier is made
proportional to the Information
instantaneous or
AM
amplitude of the modulating modulator Output
modulating voltage. signal (νm
m
) (νAM)
AM

Carrier
Carrier voltage is (νcc )
made proportional
to the instantaneous
modulating signal
General Equation of the AM wave

let the carrier voltage be given by  

νcc(t) = Vcc sin ωcc t

and the modulating voltage be given by
νm
m
(t) = Vm
m
sin ωm
m
t
then the amplitude resulting from modulation is
A = Vc + νm (t) = Vc + Vm sin ωm t

Since and Vm
m
= Vcc maa, then

Therefore A = Vcc + Vcc maa sin ωm

m
t
A = Vcc (1 + maa sin ωmm
t)

The voltage of the resulting AM wave envelope at any instant is

νAM
AM
(t) = A sin ωcc t
General Form
νAM
AM
(t) = Vcc (1 + maa sin ωm
m
t) sin ωcc t
Standard Form

νAM
AM
(t) = Vcc sin ωcc t + cos (ωcc - ωm
m
)t + cos (ωcc + ωm
m
)t

carrier lower sideband upper sideband

LSB USB
where
Vcc = carrier signal peak voltage
ωcc = 2Π fcc = carrier signal angular frequency
ωmm
= 2Π fmm
= modulating signal angular frequency
t = instantaneous time
maa = modulation index
Frequency Domain of Standard AM

graph of relative amplitude

of signal against frequency Time Domain of Standard AM

νAM(t) carrier

LSB USB

f c - fm fc fc + fm
Envelope

the curve produced by joining the tips of the

individual RF cycles of the AM waveform

envelope
AM Modulation Index (maa)

Modulation index (modulation factor,

modulation coefficient, degree of modulation,
depth of modulation)

where

; 0 < ma < 1
Percent Modulation (Maa)

modulation index expressed

as a percentage

Maa = maa x 100%

Degrees of Modulation

1. Maa < 100%

undermodulation

2. Maa = 100%
modulation

3. Maa > 100%

overmodulation
Example
A modulated wave has a peak value of 2 volts. The carrier wave
equation for the voltage is 1.2 sin(20t + 15). Determine whether the
signal is overmodulated or not.

Given
Vmm
=2V
Vcc = 1.2 V

Solution

maa = 1.67 (overmodulated)

 Power Content of an AM Signal

PT = PC + PUSB + PLSB

PTT = PCC

NOTE
PUSB = PLSB
where PUSB = PLSB =

PSBT
SBT
=

NOTE
PCC is constant value before and after modulation. PTT is
the total power after modulation and is dependent on the
modulation index. The higher the modulation index, the
higher the output power.
Example
A transmitter supplies 8 kW to the antenna when
unmodulated. Determine the total power radiated when
modulated to 30%.

Given
Pcc = 8 kW
maa = 0.3

Solution

PTT = 8.36 kW
Current and Voltage Relationships

where
ICC = unmodulated carrier
ITT = total or modulated current
VCC = unmodulated carrier voltage
VTT = total or modulated voltage
maa = modulation index
Example
The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8 A when only the
carrier is sent, but it increases to 8.93 A when the carrier is
sinusoidally modulated. Find the percentage modulation.

Given
ICC = 8 A
ITT = 8.93 A

Solution

ma = 0.701

Maa = 70.1%
Simultaneous Modulation

modulation by several carrier

where
VTT = total modulated voltage
ITT = total modulated current
maTaT
= effective total modulation index
Example
A 360 W carrier is simultaneously modulated by 2 audio waves
with modulation percentage of 55 and 65, respectively. What is
the total sideband power radiated?

Given
PCC = 360 W
Ma1a1 = 55%
Ma2a2
= 65%

Solution

PSBT
SBT
= 130.5 W
 Bandwidth Formula for AM
BW = 2 x fm
m
(single carrier modulation)

BW = 2 x fmhighest
mhighest (simultaneous modulation)

Effiency

Percentage Power Saving

NOTE
Efficiency and power saving depends on the type of
transmission but the total transmitted power is computed on
the basis of double sideband full carrier.
Example
How many AM broadcast stations can be accommodated in a 100
kHz bandwidth if the highest modulating frequency is
5 kHz?

Given
BW = 100 kHz
fmhighest
mhighest
= 5 kHz

Solution
BW = 2 x fmhighest
mhighest
BW = 2 x 5 kHz
BW = 10 kHz
10 stations
 Types of AM Transmission Frequency Domain

1. A3E – Standard AM (DSBFC)

- Double Sideband Full Carrier
- used for broadcasting

2. A3J – DSBSC
- Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier

3. H3E – SSBFC
- Single Sideband Full Carrier
- could be used as a compatible AM
broadcasting system with A3E receivers

4. J3E – SSBSC
- Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier
- The carrier is suppressed by at least 45 dB
in the transmitter
 Types of AM Transmission Frequency Domain
5. R3E – SSBRC
- Single Sideband Reduced Carrier
- An attenuated carrier is reinserted into the
SSB signal to facilitate receiving tuning and
demodulation.

6. B8E – Independent Sideband Emission

- Two independent sidebands, with a carrier
that is most commonly attenuated or suppressed.
- Used for HF point – to – point radiotelephony
in which more than one channel is required.

7. C3F – Vestigial Sideband

- A system in which a vestige, i.e., a trace, of the
unwanted sideband is transmitted usually with
a full carrier.
- Used for video transmissions in all the world’s
various TV systems to conserve bandwidth.

8. Lincompex (for PCM)

- “Linked Compressor and Expander”
- Basically a system in which all audio
frequencies above 2.7 kHz are filtered out to
allow the presence of a control tone of 2.9 kHz
of 120 Hz.
NOTE
a) Information is present only in the sidebands.
b) During 100% modulation, 2/3 of the total power is
wasted in the carrier. The carrier power
percentage is 33.33% of the transmitted AM.
c) Information on the LSB is the same as the
information on the USB.

Single Sideband Modulation

 single sideband suppressed carrier (J3E)

 a form of amplitude modulation in which
the carrier has been cancelled out with the
balanced modulator and one of the
sidebands has been removed by using one
of the three different methods.
Example
An AM transmitter is rated 100 W at 100% modulation. How
much is required for the carrier? What is the power required for the
audio signal?

Given
PTT = 100 W
Maa = 100%

Solution
PSBT = PT – PC
PSBT
SBT
= 33.33 W

PCC = 66.67 W
1. Filter Method
 the simplest system
 the unwanted sideband is removed, actually heavily
attenuated by a filter
 the filter maybe LC, crystal, ceramic or mechanical,
depending on the carrier frequency and other
requirements

Crystal
oscillator

SSB out to
linear
Sideband amplifier
Buffer Balanced Balanced
suppression
modulator mixer
filter

Filter Crystal
Audio
AF in for other oscillator or
amplifier
sideband synthesizer
 2. Phase – Shift Method
 avoids filters and some of their inherent disadvantages
 makes use of two balanced modulators and two – phase
shifting networks

Balanced
modulator
M1

AF in Audio SSB out

amplifier to linear
amplifier
Carrier
90° phase Adder
shifter

Carrier
source

AF Balanced
90° phase modulator
shifter M2
 3. “Third” or Weaver Method
 developed by Weaver
 has the advantages of the phase- shift method, such as its
ability to generate SSB at any frequency and use low
audio frequencies, without the associated disadvantage
of an AF phase shift network required to operate over a
large range of audio frequencies.

Balanced
Balanced B Low
Low –– pass
pass C Balanced
Balanced
modulator
modulator M1
M1 filter
filter modulator
modulator M2
M2

2cos ωc t 2cos ωc t
90°
90° phase
phase 90°
90° phase
phase
shifter
shifter shifter
shifter

sin ωc t 2sin ωc t 2sin ωc t

D
A AF
AF carrier
carrier RF
RF carrier
carrier Adder
AF in generator
generator generator
generator SSB
out

Balanced
Balanced E Low
Low –– pass
pass F Balanced
Balanced
modulator
modulator M3
M3 filter
filter modulator
modulator M4
M4
Product Detector

 a means of single sideband detection

 mixing of high frequency component and an
incoming modulated signal on a
multiplier circuit followed by a low pass filter

Advantages of SSB

1. power saving
2. less bandwidth
3. less noise
4. less fading
Independent Sideband (ISB) Systems

 multiplex techniques used for high – density

point – to – point communications

 simultaneously convey a totally different

transmission, to the extent that the upper
sideband could be used for telephony while the
lower sideband carries telegraphy. It consist of
two SSB channels added together to form two
sidebands around reduced carrier.
Standard AM Transmitter

Transmitter Requirements

1. frequency accuracy and stability

2. frequency agility
3. special purity
(absence of spurious signals)
4. power output rating
5. efficiency
6. modulation fidelity
 AM Transmitter Functional Block Diagram
Antenna

High – level Low – level

Modulation modulation
Class B
RF Class A Class C Class C
RF linear
crystal RF buffer RF power RF output
power
oscillator amplifier amplifier amplifier
amplifier

AF AF AF Modulator
AF in processing pre – Class B (AF Class
and amplifier power B output
filtering amplifier amplier)
Crystal Oscillator
It provides a stable carrier frequency
at low power.

Buffer Amplifier

A low gain, high input impedance

amplifier that isolates the crystal
oscillator to improve its ability.

Class C RF Power Amplifier (Driver)

Provide enough gain to sufficiently

drive the modulated amplifier.
Class C RF Output Amplifier
Termed as the modulated amplifier or the RF
output amplifier. This is the output stage for
high level systems.

Linear Power Amplifier

Amplifier which provides linear power

amplification of the amplitude – modulated
output signal from the Class C modulated
power amplifier (used for low – level
modulation ).
AF Processing and Filtering
AF is processed / filtered so as to occupy the
correct bandwidth and compressed somewhat
to reduce the ratio of maximum to minimum
amplitude.

AF Preamplifier

Boost the AF signal in order to provide enough

gain sufficiently to drive the modulator.

Modulator

Output is mixed with the carrier to generate the

AM signal.
 Sample Board
Problems

1. Modulation is used to
a. increase the carrier power
b. reduce the bandwidth used
c. allow the use of practical antennas
d. shorten the transmission channel

2. Modulation is done at
a. the transmitter
b. the receiver
c. the channel
d. the antenna
 Sample Board
Problems

3. In an AM wave, useful power is carried by

a. the sidebands
b. the carrier
c. both
d. either

4. Which of these could not be used to remove the unwanted sideband in

SSB?
a. Filter Method
b. Phase – Shift Method
c. Third Method
d. Balanced Modulator
 Sample Board
Problems

5. In amplitude modulation, the ____________ of the carrier is varied

according to the strength of the signal.
a. amplitude
b. phase
c. frequency
d. period

6. The output of a balanced modulator is

a. USB and LSB
b. LSB
c. USB
d. carrier
 Sample Board
Problems

7. A 900 kHz carrier is amplitude modulated with 4000 Hz audio tone.

The lower and upper sideband frequencies are
a. 450 and 1800 kHz
b. 800 and 1000 kHz
c.896 and 904 kHz
d. 4000 and 8000 kHz

8. The HF band covers the frequency range

a. 3 – 30 MHz
b. 30 – 300 MHz
c. 30 – 300 kHz
d. 300 kHz – 3 MHz
 Sample Board
Problems

9. In amplitude modulation, if the peak signal is 0.5 volt and the carrier
peak is 1 volt, the depth of modulation is
a. 25%
b. 50%
c. 75%
d. 78.5%

10. In a communications system, noise is most likely to affect the signal at

the
a. transmitter
b. channel
c. information source
d. destination
 Sample Board
Problems

11. Another term for Amplitude Modulation

a. DSBSC
b. SSBSC
c. DSBFC
d. SSBFC

12. The bandwidth of an AM transmitter if the carrier frequency is

1000 kHz and the modulation frequency varies from 1 kHz to 10 kHz is
a. 2000 kHz
b. 2 kHz
c. 20 kHz
d. 20.1 kHz
 Sample Board
Problems

13. If the modulation index of an AM wave is increased from 0 to 1, the

transmitter power will be
a. unchanged
b. increased by 50%
c. increased by 100%
d. decreased by 50%

14. When the modulation index of an AM amplifier is 1, the amplitude of

the carrier is ____________ the amplitude of the modulating signal.
a. greater than
b. equal to
c. less than
d. double
 Sample Board
Problems

15. Overmodulation results in ____________.

a. weakening of the signal
b. excessive carrier power
c. distortion
d. either a or b

16. If the modulation index of an AM amplifier is 0.80, the % modulation

is equal to
a. 20%
b. 80%
c. 0.80
d. 0.20
 Sample Board
Problems

17. Both frequency and phase modulation utilize ____________

modulation.
a. phase
b. amplitude
c. digital
d. angle

18. The maximum percentage modulation without distortion in an

amplitude modulation system is
a. 20%
b. 50%
c. 110%
d. 100%
 Sample Board
Problems

19. A form of AM in which the carrier is transmitted at full power, but only
one of the sidebands is transmitted.
a. SSBFC
b. SSBSC
c. DSBFC
d. DSBSC

20. Emission with only one sideband transmission

a. A3E
b. J3E
c. 11BE
d. H3E
FREQUENCY MODULATION
type of angle modulation
wherein the frequency of
the carrier is varied
relative to the amplitude
of modulating frequency
(signal)

General Equation of the FM Wave

νFM
FM
(t) = Vcc sin (ωcc t + mff sin ωm
m
t)

where
Vcc = carrier signal peak voltage
ωcc = 2Πfcc = carrier signal angular frequency
ωmm
= 2Πfmm
= modulating signal angular frequency
t = instantaneous time
m = modulation index
 Frequency Domain of Standard FM

νFM(t)

fc

fc + nfm
fc - nfm
Time Domain of Standard FM
 Frequency Deviation (δ)

 the amount of change in carrier frequency produced

by modulating signal
 the maximum frequency deviation occurs at the
maximum amplitude of the modulating signal

δ = fmax
max
- fcc
δ = fcc - fmin
min

where δ = fmax + fc
δ
fcc = carrier frequency CS
fmax
max
= maximum frequency δ δ = fc - fmin
change of the carrier
fmin
min
= minimum frequency
CS (Carrier Swing)
change of the carrier
NOTE
The intelligence amplitude determines the a mount of
carrier frequency deviation. The intelligence frequency
determines the rate of carrier frequency deviation.

δ α Em
m
δ = k Em
m

k=
Example
Find the carrier and modulating frequencies , the modulation
index and the maximum deviation of the FM wave represented by
the voltage equation νFM
FM
(t) = 12 sin (6 x 1088 + 5 sin 1250t). What power
will this FM wave dissipate in a 10Ω resistor?

Given
νFM
FM
(t) = 12 sin (6 x 1088 + 5 sin 1250t)

Solution
ωcc = 6 x 1088 ωm
m
= 1250

fcc = 95. 49 MHz fcc = 198.94 Hz

mff = 5
Solution
δ = mff fm
m
= (5 x 198.94)
δ = 994.72 Hz

P = 7.2 W
Carrier Swing

the total variation in

frequency of the carrier

Modulation Index

NOTE
The modulation index determines the number of
significant sidebands in an FM signal. The modulation index
for FM is directly proportional to the modulating voltage and
at the same time inversely proportional to the modulating
signal frequency.
Example
A modulation frequency range from 30 to 15000 Hz is permitted
in an FM system, together with a maximum deviation of 50 kHz.
What will be the minimum and maximum possible values
of modulation index in the system.
Given
fm
m
= 30 – 15000 Hz
δmax
max
= 50 kHz
Solution

mff max
max
= 1666.67 mff min
min
= 3.33
Deviation Ratio

The ratio of the maximum permissible

frequency deviation to the maximum
permissible modulating frequency.

Percentage of Modulation
Wideband FM vs. Narrowband FM

Descriptions Wideband FM Narrowband FM

Applications FM broadcast Mobile
and communications
entertainment
Modulation 5 – 2500 ≈1
index (mf)
Maximum 75 kHz 5 kHz
deviation (δmax)
Modulating 30 Hz – 15 kHz 3 kHz (max)
frequency (fm)
Example
For an FM signal in the 88 – 108 MHz broadcast band with a
frequency deviation of 15 kHz, determine the percent modulation.

Given
fm
m
= 88 – 108 Mhz
δmax
max
= 15 kHz

Solution

mff = 20%
 Frequency Spectrum of the FM Wave

νFM
FM
= J00 (mff) sin ωcc t + J11 (mff ) [ sin (ωcc + ωm
m
)t – sin (ωcc - ωm
m
)t ]

amplitude of sidebands
the carrier with
signal frequencies

NOTE
For a single fm
m
, you can produce an infinite number of
sidebands, in pairs, but most of them would be of
negligible amounts.
Transmitted Power

In FM, PTT is constant.

NOTE
In FM, the total transmitted power always
remains constant, but with increased depth of
modulation the required bandwidth is increased.
Bandwidth Formulas for FM

a. Theoretical BW for FM

BW = 2 x fm
m
x no. of highest needed sideband

b. Approximate BW

BW = 2(fm
m
+ δ) John Carsons Formula

c. NBFM

BW ≈ 2fm
m

d. WBFM
BW ≈ 2δ
Example
What is the bandwidth of an FM signal generated by a 2 kHz
audio signal and a 110 MHz FM carrier with a maximum deviation of 8
kHz?
Modulation Index Sidebands or
(Mf) J – coefficients
1 3
2 4
3 6
4 7
5 8

Given
fm
m
= 2 kHz
fcc = 110 MHz
Advantages of FM over AM

1.The amplitude of the FM carrier remains

constant.
2. Increase in the S/N ratio (less noise)
3. It is possible to reduce noise still further by
increasing deviation and fitting with
amplitude limiters.
4. Less adjacent channel interference because
there are guard bands between FM
stations provided by the FCC and CCIR.
5. It is possible to operate several independent
transmitters on the same frequency with
considerably less interference.
Disadvantages of FM

1. A much wider channel is required by FM, 7 to

15 times as large as that needed by AM.

2. FM transmitting and receiving equipment

tends to be more complex, particularly for
modulation and demodulation, therefore
more expensive.

3. Since reception is limited to line of sight, the

area of reception for FM is much smaller
than AM.
Capture Effect

The inherent ability of FM to minimize the

effect of undesired signals (noise), also applies
to the reception of a strongest signal or
stations and minimizing other signals
operating on the same frequency.
Block Diagram of an FM Transmitter

Exciter
RF (the means of Power
oscillator providing an amplifier
FM RF signal )

Audio Pre-emphasis
amplifier network
 Pre -emphasis

The boosting of the

higher modulating
frequencies at the
transmitter, in
accordance with the
pre –arranged curve to
improve noise
immunity at FM and
prevent the higher
frequency component
of the transmitted
intelligence being
degraded.
 De -emphasis

Reducing the
amplitude of the
higher modulating
frequencies at the
receiver to the same
amount as it was
before the
pre – emphasis
circuit.

NOTE
The pre –emphasis and de – emphasis networks have a time
constant of 75 μs (150 μs for Europe , 25 μs for Dolby) and a cut –
off frequency of 2122 Hz.
NOTE
If two modulating signals have the same initial amplitude
and one of them is pre – emphasized to twice this amplitude,
whereas the other is unaffected, being at a much lower
frequency , then the receiver will naturally have to de –
emphasize the first signal by a factor of 2 to ensure that both
signals have the same amplitude in the output of the receiver.
Forms of Interference in FM

1. Image Frequency
 effect of two stations being received
simultaneously

2. Co – channel Interference

 true to mobile receivers; when travelling

from one transmitter toward another.
This minimizes by capture effect.

3. Adjacent Channel Interference

 created between tuning two adjacent
stations due the imperfection of filter
circuits like channel 2 and 3.
 Stereophonic FM Multiplex System (1961)

modulation system in which two – channel

system with left channel and a right
channel transmitted simultaneously and
independently

NOTE
Stereophonic uses 38 kHz subcarrier from a pilot carrier of
19 kHz to produce sum and difference of the two channels. Also,
a 67 kHz subsidiary communications authorization (SCA) is
added for optional transmission in FM broadcasting.
Optional SCA
transmission
sum channel sub – difference channel
(L + R) carrier (L - R)

0 15 19 23 38 53 59.5 67 74.5
audio DSBSC AM FM
 Generation of FM Signals
A. Direct Method

 Varying the frequency of the

carrier oscillator directly

1. Reactance Modulator
Reactance of the capacitive or
inductive components of the
tank circuit vary in direct
relationship to the audio
signal which causes the
oscillator frequency to vary
thereby directly producing
AM.
 The equivalent capacitance depends on the
device transconductance. The capacitance can be
originally adjusted to any value, within reason, by
varying the components R and C

Ceq
eq
= gm
m
RC
Since

 The expression gm
m
RC has the correct dimensions
of capacitance; R, measured in ohms, and gm m
measured in siemens (S).

Therefore
Example
Determine the value of the capacitive reactance obtainable from a
reactance FET whose gm m
is 12 millisiemens (12 mS). Assume that the
gate – to – source resistance is 1/9 of the reactance of the gate – to –
drain capacitor and that frequency is 5 MHz.

Given n
gm
m
= 12 mS
R = 1/9 Xcc Xcc = 9R

Solution

Xcc eq
eq
= 750 Ω
2. Varactor Diode
Modulator

Uses a varactor (voltage

variable capacitor)
diode that when
reversed biased exhibits
a junction capacitance
that varies inversely
with the amount of
reverse voltage.
B. Indirect Method

 Armstrong Method
The modulating signal is modulated using
balanced modulator then fed to a summing device
together with a crystal that is shifted 90°.
Wideband FM then obtain by successive
frequency multiplication of the output.
 high fc
and mf
Crystal
carrier only
oscillator medium fc low fc high fc
and low mf and mf and mf
FM wave(very low
fc and mf )
Combining 1stst group of Mixer 2nd
nd group of
Class C
Buffer power
network multipliers multipliers
amplifiers

sidebands only

90° Phase Balanced Crystal

shifter Modulator oscillator

equalized audio

Audio
Audio
carrier at equalizer
90°
Phase Modulation

modulation wherein the phase of the carrier

is made proportional to the instantaneous
value of the modulating signal
General Equation of the PM Wave

ѵPM
PM
(t) = Vcc sin(ωcc t + mpp sin ωm
m
t)

where
mpp = kppVm
m

mpp = modulation index

kpp = proportionality constant

Under identical conditions:

mpp = mff but when fm
m
is changed
mpp k

mff changed
Example
The equation of an angle modulated wave is
ν(t) = 15 sin (3x1088t + 20 sin 2000t). Calculate the maximum
deviation. Rewrite this equation if the modulating frequency is
halved, but all else remains constant, assuming that the wave is:
a. frequency modulated
b. phase modulated

Given
νPM
PM
(t) = 15 sin (3x10 8t + 20 sin 2000t)
8

Solution

fm = 318.31 Hz δ = 6.37 kHz

Solution
a. frequency modulated

νFM
FM
(t) = 15 sin (3x108t + 40 sin 1000t)
8

b. phase modulated
νPM
PM
(t) = 15 sin (3x108t + 20 sin 1000t)
8
Frequency Modulation vs. Phase Modulation

Comparisons Phase Modulation Frequency

Modulation
deviation (δ) δp is proportional to δf is proportional to
Vm, independent on Vm
fm

modulation index mp is proportional mf is proportional

to Vm to Vm
and inversely
proportional to fm

when fm is changed mp will remain mf will increase as fm

constant is reduced, vice
versa
 Sample Board
Problems

1. Which of the is not an advantage of FM over AM.

a. better noise immunity
b. lower bandwidth required
c. transmitted power is useful
d. less modulating power

2. In an FM Stereo Multiplex transmission , the

a. sum signal modulates the 19 kHz subcarrier
b. difference signal modulates the 67 kHz subcarrier
c. difference signal modulates the 38 kHz subcarrier
d. difference signal modulates the 19 kHz subcarrier
 Sample Board
Problems

3. When modulating frequency is doubled, the modulation index is

halved, and the modulating voltage remains constant, the modulation
system is
a. AM
b. PAM
c. FM
d. PM

4. Pre – emphasis and de – emphasis are used in the FM stereo multiplex

system to
a. SWR
b. power ratio
c. S/N
d. CMMR
 Sample Board
Problems

5. The commercial FM radio broadcast band is

a. 535 – 1605 kHz
b. 27 – 29 kHz
c. 88 – 108 MHz
d. 300 – 3000 MHz

6. For an FM broadcast station, the maximum deviation produced by

audio modulation is 45 kHz. The percent modulation is ____________.
a. 10
b. 45
c. 60
d. 100
 Sample Board
Problems

7. The modulation index of an FM signal is one half the original index if

the modulating frequency is
a. doubled
b. halved
c. increased
d. decreased

8. An FM signal with a modulation index, mff is passed through a

frequency tripler. The wave in the output of the tripler will have a
modulation index of
a. mff /3
b. mff
c. 3mff
d. 9mff
 Sample Board
Problems

9. Which of the following is an indirect method of generating FM?

a. Reactance FET Modulator
b. Varactor Diode Modulator
c. Armstrong Modulator
d. Reactance BJT Modulator

10. What is the deviation ratio for the station in the commercial FM
broadcast band?
a. 5.5
b. 5
c. 4
d. 6
 Sample Board
Problems

11. What is the frequency deviation necessary for 80% modulation in the
FM broadcast?
a. 75 kHz
b. 75 MHz
c. 60 kHz
d. 60 MHz

12. In frequency modulation, noise components which affect the

amplitude can be eliminated using
a. an oscillator
b. an integrator
c. an FM limiter circuit
d. differentiator
 Sample Board
Problems

13. In FM, if a carrier is modulated by a single frequency, the number of

SB’s produced is
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. greater than 3

14. The maximum frequency deviation of a standard FM radio broadcast

station is
a. 25 kHz
b. 40 kHz
c. 75 kHz
d. 200 kHz
 Sample Board
Problems

15. The modulation index of an FM signal having a carrier swing of

100 kHz when the modulating signal has a frequency of 2 kHz is
a. 75 kHz
b. 25 kHz
c. 50 kHz
d. 0.50 kHz
16. In FM stereophonic transmission standards, the suppressed
subcarrier frequency is
a. 19 kHz
b. 67 kHz
c. 38 kHz
d. 69 kHz
 Sample Board
Problems

17. Maximum FM broadcast deviation is 75 kHz and maximum

modulating frequency is 15 kHz. The maximum bandwidth
requirement is
a. 180 kHz
b. 160kHz
c. 140 kHz
d. 90 kHz

18. An FM signal with a deviation δ is passed through a mixer, and has its
frequency reduced fivefold. The deviation in the output of the mixer is
a. 5δ
b. indeterminate
c. δ /5
d. δ
 Sample Board
Problems

19. The permissible range in maximum modulating index for commercial

FM that has 30 Hz to 15 kHz modulating frequencies is
a. 5 and 2500
b. 50 and 250
c. 50 and 2500
d. 5 and 50

20. The carrier swing necessary to provide 80% modulation in the FM

broadcast band is
a. 150 kHz
b. 120 kHz
c. 75 kHz
d. 60 kHz
Demodulation
 the process by which the modulating signal
is recovered from the modulated carrier
 found in receivers

Functions of a Receiver
1. selects the desired signal
2. amplifies
3. demodulates / detects
4. displays

Standard AM Receivers
1. Tuned Radio Frequency
2. Superheterodyne Receiver
Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver
 a simple “logical” receiver
 simplicity and high sensitivity
 aligned at broadcast frequencies 535 – 1640 Hz

Power
amplifier

1stst RF 2nd
nd RF AM AF
amplifier amplifier detector amplifier

ganged
RF Amplifier
It amplifies weak signal from the antenna. It has
a variable resistor that controls the RF gain and
sensitivity.

Detector
It provides rectification and detection for
modulated signals.

AF Amplifier
Volume – controlled amplifier that raises the
power level of the audio (AF) signal to a value
sufficient to drive the loudspeaker of the
receiver.
NOTE
RF stage provides greater gain, prevention of re –radiation
of the local oscillator, improved rejection of adjacent unwanted
signals and better coupling of antenna with the receiver.

Problems in TRF Receivers

1. instability
2. insufficient adjacent frequency
rejection
3. bandwidth radiations
AM Superheterodyne Receiver

RF
fo fIF 11stst IF 22nd
nd IF AM AF
RF Mixer IF IF AM AF
amplifier
amplifier amplifier
amplifier amplifier
amplifier detector
detector amplifier
amplifier
fsi
fs
Crystal
Crystal
oscillator
oscillator
ganged

RF Amplifier
Amplifies the weak NOTE
The RF section provides
RF signal received discrimination or selectivity against
from the antenna. image and intermediate frequency
Selectivity of the signals, provide an efficient coupling
receiver depends on between the antenna and the first
stage of the RF amplifier.
this section.
 Local Oscillator
A crystal oscillator whose frequency “beats” with
the incoming signal to produce the correct
intermediate frequency.

Mixer (First Detector)

Combines the incoming RF signal and the signal
from the oscillator, and produces two original
frequencies, their sum and differences, and
harmonics. It produces desired intermediate
frequency (IF).

1stst IF Amplifier
Tuned to 455 kHz (IF of AM), amplifies it and rejects
the remaining output frequencies
 2nd
nd IF Amplifier

Further amplification and selectivity of the IF

signal. Most of the gain (sensitivity) of the receiver
are achieved on the IF amplifiers.

AM Detector (2nd
nd Detector)

It demodulates the IF signal and recovers or

extracts the original audio signal.

AF Amplifier
It raises the power level of the audio signal; to a
value sufficient to drive the loudspeaker of the
receiver.
FM Superheterodyne Receiver

RF
RF amplifier
amplifier
and
and
preselector
preselector

IF
IF amplifier
amplifier De-emphasis
De-emphasis Audio
Audio
Mixer (10.7 Limiter Detector network amplifier
(10.7 MHz)
MHz) network amplifier

Local
Local
oscillator
oscillator
Demodulation

The process of shifting the spectrum back to

the original baseband frequency range and
reconstructing the original form. Also known
as detection.

Sensitivity
Ability to amplify weak signals

Selectivity
Ability to reject unwanted signals(adjacent)
Image Rejection Ratio (α)
 Provided by tuned circuits to block fsi
 The ratio of the gain at desired frequency (fs)
to the gain of image frequency signal (fsi)

where
Q = quality factor provided by tuned
circuits to block fsi
fs = signal frequency
fo = oscillator frequency
fIF = intermediate frequency
fsi = image frequency signal

NOTE
fsi = fs + 2fIFIF ; the higher the fIF, the better
fsi = fo + fIF the image rejection
IF
Example
In a broadcast superheterodyne receiver having loaded Q of 100
in the antenna coupling circuit. If fIFIF
is 455 kHz. Calculate the image
frequency and its rejection ratio of 1000 kHz.

Given
Q = 100
fIF
IF
= 455 kHz
fs = 1000 kHz

Solution
fs = fs + 2fIF
IF
= 1000 kHz + 2(455 kHz)
fsi = 1910 kHz

α = 138.65
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

1. Modulation means ____________.
a. Varying of some parameters of a carrier such as its amplitude to
transmit information
b. Transmit pulses in DC form of a copper wire
c. Varying information
d. Utilization of a single transmission channel

2. The modulation system used for telegraphy is ____________.

a. Single tone modulation
b. Two –tone modulation
c. Frequency – shift keying
d. Pulse code modulation
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

3. A process that occurs in the transmitter.
a. Demodulation
b. Modulation
c. Mixing
d. Beating

4. A process that occurs in the receiver

a. Beating
b. Modulation
c. Mixing
d. Demodulation
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

5. What is the amount of carrier swing necessary to produce an 80%
modulation for the audio portion of the TV band?
a. 40 kHz
b. 50 kHz
c. 20 kHz
d. 25 kHz

6. The letter number designation B8E is a form of modulation is also

known as ____________?
a. Pilot – carrier system
b. Independent sideband emission
c. LINCOMPEX
d. Vestigial sideband transmission
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

7. Which symbol indicates that only one sideband is transmitted?
a. A3E
b. B8E
c. C3F
d. H3E

8. Refers to an emission designation for facsimile

a. J3E and F4E
b. A3J and A4E
c. A3E and F3C
d. R3E and A3E
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

9. Which of the following refers to a double sideband full carrier?
a. A3E
b. A3J
c. F3
d. R3A

10. What is emission of F3F?

a. Facsimile
b. Modulated CW
c. RTTY
d. Television
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

11. In a filter system of J3E, how many circuits must be balanced?
a. 0
b. 1
c. 2
d. 3

12. Independent sideband emission

a. H3E
b. R3E
c. J3E
d. B8E
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

13. Type of emission produced when an amplitude – modulated
transmitter is modulated by a television signal.
a. F3F
b. A3C
c. F3C
d. A3F

14. The output of a balanced modulator is

a. AM
b. FM
c. SSB
d. DSB
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

15. What is the emission designation for FM telephony?
a. F3E
b. G3E
c. J3E
d. H3E

16. What is the maximum power of output of an A3E emission?

a. 4 W
b. 10 W
c. 3 kW
d. 10 kW
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

17. If the modulation index of an AM wave is doubled, the antenna current
is doubled, the AM system being used is ____________.
a. A5C
b. A3J
c. A3H
d. A3

18. What is the power saving in J3E system at 100% modulation?

a. 33%
b. 100%
c. 83.3%
d. 66.67%
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

19. What is the letter number designation for an FM facsimile?
a. F3E
b. F3C
c. A3E
d. C3C

20. Which symbol indicates that only one sideband is transmitted?

a. A3E
b. B8E
c. C3F
d. H3E
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

21.Vestigial sideband emission
a. C3F
b. R3E
c. J3E
d. B8E

22. The third symbol radio emission which represent telephone

transmission including sound broadcasting.
a. W
b. F
c. C
d. E
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

23. What is the shape of a trapezoidal pattern at 100% modulation?
a. Circle
b. Square
c. Triangle
d. Rectangle

24. ____________ is the maximum sideband suppression using filter

system?
a. 50 dB
b. 60 dB
c. 40 dB
d. 30 dB
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

25. Which test instruments displays the carrier and the sidebands
amplitude with frequency to frequency?
a. Oscilloscope
b. Spectrum Analyzer
c. Frequency Analyzer
d. Amplitude Analyzer

26. In what type of transmitters is balanced modulators used?

a. SSB
b. A3E
c. F3E
d. FM
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

27. What is emission C3F?
a. Facsimile
b. Modulated CW
c. RTTY
d. Television

28. Which one of the following emission transmits the lower sideband
and half of the upper sideband?
a. A5C
b. J3E
c. A3J
d. A3H
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

29. Single sideband reduced carrier emission type.
a. H3E
b. R3E
c. J3E
d. B8E

30. Phase modulation type.

a. F3E
b. F3C
c. F3F
d. G3E
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

31. A type of emission is produced when an amplitude – modulated
transmitter is modulated by a facsimile signal.
a. A3F
b. F3F
c. A3C
d. F3C

32. Double sideband full carrier emission type.

a. A3J
b. H3E
c. R3A
d. A3E
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

33. What type of emission is frequency modulation?
a. F3E
b. G3E
c. A3E
d. B3E

34. Standard way of designating AM

a. A3E
b. B3E
c. AHE
d. C3F
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

35. If the input to a detector stage is an amplitude – modulated (A3E) IF
signal then the output from the stage is
a. A lower frequency carrier
b. The audio – voice information
c. A Morse code signal
d. The upper of lower signal sidebands

36. What is the major advantage of FM over AM?

a. High frequency
b. No interference
c. Simple circuits
d. Less noise
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

37. What percent of the radiated power is in the sidebands with 50%
sinusoidal modulation (AM)?
a. 11%
b. 16.67%
c. 33%
d. 20%

38. The carrier in an AM transmitter is the

a. Transmitter’s output signal when the modulation is zero
b. Transmitter’s output signal when the modulation is present
c. Output signal from the crystal oscillator
d. RMS value of the AM signal
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

39. Two AM transmitting antennas are close together. As a result the two
modulated signals are mixed on the final RF stage of both
transmitters. What is the resultant effect on the other station?
a. Harmonic interference
b. Intermodulation interference
c. Spurious interference
d. Cross modulation interference

40. The purpose why an RF amplifier is operated under linear class B

conditions (as opposed to class C ) is to
a. Generate even only harmonics
b. Generate even only odd harmonics
c. Increase the efficiency
d. Amplify an AM signal
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

41. The type of emission that suffer most from selective fading
a. CW and SSB
b. SSB and TV
c. FM and double sideband FM
d. AATV and CW

42. A receive selectivity of 10 kHz in the IF circuitry is optimum for what

type of signals?
a. AB voice
b. Facsimile
c. FM
d. Double – sideband AM
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

43. The negative half of the AM wave is supplied by a/an ____________ in a
diode modulator.
a. Tuned circuit
b. Transformer
c. Capacitor
d. Inductor

44. If the percentage modulation of an AM amplifier is 88% and the

modulating signal is 1 volt, the carrier has an amplitude of
____________.
a. 1.14 volts
b. 0.88 volts
c. 1.88 volts
d. 0.12 volts
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

45. Mixer is also known as ____________.
a. Modulator
b. Suppressor
c. Converter
d. Beater

46. 100% modulation in AM means a corresponding in total power by

___________.
a. 25%
b. 75%
c. 100%
d. 50%
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

47. Three audio waves with 100, 200 and 300 volts amplitude respectively,
simultaneously modulate a 450 volts carrier. What is the total percent
of the modulation of the AM wave?
a. 69%
b. 115.5%
c. 50%
d. 83%

48. For ____________ percent modulation in AM, the modulation envelope

has a peak value double the unmodulated carrier level.
a. 50
b. 66.67
c. 100
d. 83.3
 Self Test
Modulation

Choose the letter which answer each question.

49. The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 6.2 A when unmodulated
and rises to 6.7 A when modulated. What is the percent modulation?
a. 57.9%
b. 67.5%
c. 51%
d. 42.8%

50. One of the following can produce AM

a. Having the carrier value a resistance
b. Having the modulating signal vary a capacitance
c. Vary the carrier frequency
d. Vary the gain of an amplifier