Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives and Adverbs
Characteristics of Adjectives
1. Most of them can be premodified by the intensifier very : e.g. very

poor, very good, very clear,
2. Most can be superlative and comparative: happy: happier, happiest

Intelligent: more intelligent, most intelligent
• An adjective phrase is a phrase with an adjective as a head
e.g. He was so very fine. Or it can be only one word:
He was fine
Syntactic Functions of Adjectives
Attributive and predicative
Adjectives are attributive when they premodify nouns: ( between the
determiner and the noun)
The ……perfect……… person

His …red ….. desk
Predicative adjectives can be
a. Subject complement
e.g. your pen is nice
S. Cs
b. Object complement
e.g. He made his wife happy
O Co
Adjectives can be complement to a subject which is a finite clause
e.g. Whether he will resign is uncertain

S (finite clause) Adj. (Cs)
Or a non finite clause
e.g. Talking while eating is not good
S (non finite clause) adj. (Cs)
Similarly adjectives can be object complement to a clause (finite and non

finite)
e. g.
1. I consider what he did foolish
O Co
2. I consider driving so fast foolish
O Co
The adjective functioning as object complement often expresses the

result of the process denoted by the verb
e.g. He pulled his belt tight ( as a result the belt was then tight)
He pushed the window open ( as a result the window was then
open)
• Postpositive
Indefinite pronouns ending in –body, -one, -thing, -where can be
modified postpositively
The adjective with the complementation can be regarded as a reduced

relative clause
e.g. I want something larger ( i.e. which is larger)
• Postpositive
Postposition is obligatory for some adjectives, which have a different
meaning when they occur attributively or predicatively
e.g. elect (soon to take office) proper ( as strictly defined)

e.g. The president elect
The city of London proper
• Postpositive
In several compounds ( mostly legal or quasi-legal) the adjective is postposed
e.g.
Attorney general
Body politic
Court martial
Heir apparent
Notary public
Post master general
• Postpositive
Postposition is usual for a few a-adjective (e.g. ablaze) and absent,
present, concerned, involved .
e.g. the house ablaze is next door to mine.

e.g. the people involved were not found
• Postpositive
Some postposed adjectives, especially those ending in –able or –ible
retain the basic meaning they have in attributive position but convey
the implication that what they are denoting has only a temporary
application. Consider these two examples
e.g. the stars visible (refers to stars that are visible at a specific time)
the visible stars ( a specific category of stars that can be seen)
• Postpositive
If an adjective is alone or premodified merely by an intensifier,
postposition is normally not allowed
e.g. The (rather) timid soldiers.

*The soldier (rather) timid.
• Postpositive
However, if the noun phrase is generic and indefinite, coordinated
adjectives or adjectives with a clause element added can be postposed,
though such instructions are not very frequent.
e.g. Soldiers timid or cowardly don’t fight well

A man usually honest will sometimes cheat
• Postpositive
More commonly, we find
Timid or cowardly soldiers don’t fight well

Soldiers who are timid or cowardly don’t fight well
A man who is usually honest will sometimes cheat
• Postpositive
It is unacceptable to propose the whole of an adjective phrase in which there is
complementation of the adjective:
e.g. * The easiest to teach boys were in my class.
Postposition is normally possible

e.g. The boys easiest to teach were in my class
They have a house much larger than yours.
Students brave enough to attempt the course deserve to pass.
• Postpositive
Though it is more usual to prepose the adjective ( and its modifiers if
any) and postpose the complementation:
e.g. The easiest boys to teach were in my class

They have a much larger house than yours
• Postpositive
But if the adjective is modified by enough, too, or so, the modified
adjective normally cannot be separated from its complementation
e.g.
*Brave enough students to attempt the course deserve to pass
*A brave enough student to attempt the course deserves to pass
*Too/So easy boys to teach were in my class.
* A too/so easy boy to teach was in my class
• Postpositive
But notice that

- enough and too or so can be separated from its complementation if the modified adjective is positioned
before the indefinite article of noun phrase:
e.g. He is (not) brave enough a student to attempt the course

He thought him too difficult a boy to teach
e.g. So easy a boy to teach deserves to pass.
I have never met so difficult a man to please
- galore and aplenty are postposed obligatorily

- e.g. There were presents galore.
• Head of a noun phrase
Adjectives can function as heads of noun phrases. In this case the
adjective will have a generic reference, they do not inflect for number
and genitive case, and they must take the definite article.
e.g. The extremely old need a great deal of attention

We will nurse your sick and feed your hungry
The old who resist change can express violence
But notice
e.g. He is acceptable to both old and young
Also adjective of nationalities can be heads of noun phrases. In this

case also they have generic reference
e.g. The British are nice people.
The Japanese have developed their country.
The industrious Dutch are admired by their numbers.
However, these adjectives of nationalities cannot be modified by adverbs but
other adjectives
e.g. The industrious Dutch are admired by their neighbors .

adjective
= The Dutch, who are industrious, are admired by neighbors.
Note: these adjectives are sometimes used not to refer to the nation as a whole
but to some part of it; for example troops
e.g. The British have control of the bridge. = the British troops.
Some adjectives can function as noun-phrase heads when they have
abstract reference. These take singular concord. A few are modifiable
by adverbs. They include, in particular, superlatives.
e.g.
The latest ( i.e the latest news, thing) is that he is going to run for
elections
The very best (i.e. the very best part, thing) is yet to come
Notice the following examples
e.g. He left for good

He enjoyed it to the full
in short
These adjectives are complements for prepositions

• Verbless adjective clauses
An adjective ( alone or as head of an adjective phrase) can function as a
verbless clause. The clause is mobile, though it usually precedes or
follows the subject of the superordinate clause:
e.g. (By then) nervous, the man opened the letter
The man, (by then) nervous, opened the letter
The man opened the letter, (by then) nervous
The implied subject is usually the subject of the sentence. Thus, while
we have
The man restrained the woman, who was aggressive.
We do not have as its equivalent

*The man restrained the woman, aggressive
However, if the clause contains additional clause constituents, its
implied subject can be other than the subject of the sentence:
- She glanced with disgust at the cat, quiet (now) in her daughter’s lab
- Long and tidy , his hair played in the breeze
- Anxious for a quick decision, the chairman called for a vote
The implied subject of the adjective clause can be the whole of the
superordinate clause. For example
e.g. Strange, it was she who initiated divorce proceedings
is semantically equivalent to:
That it was she who initiated divorce proceedings is strange

- An adverb may sometimes replace, with little difference in meaning,
an adjective functioning as a verbless clause:
e.g. Nervously, the man opened the door

Nervous, the man opened the door
The adjective refers to the subject without explicit reference to the
action, and unless otherwise stated, the characterization is only
temporary in its application. But if an explicit time indicator is
introduced, the application of the adjective is extended in time. For
example when we insert always, the man’s nervousness becomes a
permanent characteristic, and is not specifically connected with the
action:
Always nervous, the man opened the letter

When the implied subject is the whole clause, a corresponding adverb can replace the
adjective with little or no difference in meaning, as with strangely for strange:
e.g. Strangely, it was she who initiated divorce proceedings.
The adjective, unlike the adverb, allows a that-or how- clause to follow:
e.g. Strange that it turned out that way
e.g. Strange how she still likes him
In such cases, it is ellipted and the adjective is not separated from the clause by a
comma.
• Contingent Adjective clauses
A contingent adjective clause expresses the circumstance or condition
under which what is said in the superordinate clause applies. A
subordinator is often present but can be omitted.
e.g. - Enthusiastic, they make good students (= when enthusiastic)

- Whether right or wrong, he always comes off worst in an
argument because of his in ability to speak coherently
- When ripe, these apples are sweet
• Contingent Adjective clauses
The implied subject of the contingent adjective clause is normally the subject of
the superordinate clause, but it can also be the object:
e.g. We can drink it hot
You must eat it when fresh
The adjective then usually comes finally and could be regarded as a
complement
The implied subject can be the whole of the superordinate clause

e.g. If (it is) possible, the dog should be washed every day.
• Exclamatory adjective sentences
An adjective as head of an adjective phrase or as its sole realization can
be an exclamation:
e.g. How good of you!

How wonderful!
Excellent!
• Syntactic sub classification of adjectives
Adjectives can be subclassified according to whether they can function
as
(1) Both attributive and predicative,
e.g. a hungry man – the man is hungry
These are the majority and constitute the central adjective
(2) Attributive only, e.g. an utter fool but not a fool is utter
(3) Predicative only, e.g. * a loath woman – the woman is loath to
admit it
• Attributive only
In general, adjectives that are restricted to attributive position or that
occur predominantly in attributive position do not characterize the
referent of the noun directly. For example, an old friend (one who has
been a friend for a long period of time) does not necessarily imply that
the person is old, so that we cannot relate my old friend to my friend is
old. Old refers to the friendship and does not characterize the person. In
that use, old is attributive only. On the other hand, in that old man, old
is a central adjective ( the opposite of young) and we can relate that old
man to that man is old
• Attributive only
Adjective that characterize the noun directly are termed INHERENT, those
that do not are termed NON-INHERENT
Some non-inherent adjectives occur also predicatively. For example, both a new student
and a new friend are non –inherent, though the former can be used predicatively:
e.g. That student is new
*My friend is new
A few words with strongly emotive value are restricted to attributive position, e.g.: you
poor man, my dear lady, that wretched woman
• Intensifying adjectives
Some adjectives have a heightening or lowering effect on the noun they
modify. Two semantic subclasses of intensifying adjectives can be
distinguished for our present purpose:
1. Emphasizers have a general heightening effect
2. Amplifiers scale upwards from an assumed norm, denoting the
upper extreme of the scale or a high point on the scale.
Emphasizers are attributive only. Examples include:
e.g. a certain (sure) winner

an outright lie
a pure (sheer) fabrication
a real (undoubted) hero
Amplifiers are central adjectives when they are inherent:
A complete victory ……………….The victory was complete

Their extreme condemnation………..Their condemnation was complete
His great folly………………………………….His folly was great.
But when they are non-inherent, they are attributive only
e.g. a complete fool………… *the fool is complete

a perfect idiot………….. *the idiot is perfect
Other examples of amplifiers that are attributive only

e.g. a close friend utter folly a strong opponent
his entire salary the very end a great supporter
Several intensifiers have homonyms that are central adjectives

e.g. Those are real flowers Those flowers are real.
Certain intensifying adjectives are always attributive only, in particular:
sheer, mere, utter
Many adjectives can be used as intensifiers, usually with restrictions on

the nouns they modify, e.g. a great/big fool (very foolish), a great/big
baby ( very babyish), a great friend but not a big friend ( very friendly).
These are restricted to attributive position
• Limiter adjectives
Limiter adjectives particularize the reference of the noun
Examples include
The main reason the precise reason
The only occasion the same student
• Limiter adjectives
Some of these have homonyms. For example, certain in a certain
person is a limiter ( a particular person), while in a certain winner it is
an intensifier ( a sure winner). In John is certain that he will win, it is
semantically related to the intensifier, but it is equivalent to sure in the
sense of confident and is limited to predicative position.
- You are the very man I want. ( very here is a limiter adjective)
• Related to adverbials
Other adjectives that are attributive only can be related to adverbials.
These non-inherent adjectives include:
My former friend……… formerly my friend

An occasional visitor…………occasionally a visitor
Some require implications additional to the adverbial

e.g. the late president till lately the president (now dead)
If adjectives premodify agentive nouns, the latter suggest as well a relationship to the
verb base:
e.g. a hard worker a worker who works hard

a big eater Someone who eats a great deal
There are also instances where the noun normally lacks a corresponding verb but
where the adjective ( not always attributive) refers to the process part of the noun’s
meaning:
e.g. an excellent pianist ……. a pianist who plays the piano excellently
The implied process can be associated with an inanimate object:
e.g. a fast car a car that one drives fast

a fast road a road on which one can drive fast
Some of these adjectives have a temporal meaning

e.g. the acting chairman
• Denominal adjectives
Some adjectives derived from nouns are attributive only

e.g.
- Criminal law…………….. Law concerning crime
- An atomic scientist…………. a scientist specializing in atomic science
- A medical school…………….. A school for students of medicine.
• Denominal adjectives
- The same item may also be a central adjective

e.g. a criminal law : two meanings
- With particular noun heads, an attributive noun may be an alternative to the denominal
adjective,
- e.g. criminal detection/crime detection
Or may be used exclusively
- e.g. law school but not legal school
Conversely
Medical school not medicine school
• Predicative only
Adjectives that are restricted or virtually restricted to predicative position are
most like verbs and adverbs. They tend to refer to a ( possibly temporary)
condition rather than to characterize. Perhaps the most common are those
referring to health or lack of health: faint, ill, well, unwell. However, some
people use ill and ( to a lesser extent) unwell as attributives too.
Note: sick is the exception among these ‘health’ adjectives in that its
attributive use is very common:
e.g. the sick woman……… the woman is sick
A larger group comprises adjectives that can or must take

complementation e.g. afraid (that, of, about), conscious ( that, of), fond
(of), loath (to)
Many closely resemble verbs semantically:
- He is afraid to do it ……….. He fears to do it

- They are fond of her………….. They like her
Some have homonyms that can occur both predicatively and

attributively,
e.g. The conscious patient ……. The patient is conscious
• Semantic sub-classification of adjectives
A) Stative/Dynamic
Adjectives are characteristically stative, but many can be seen as
dynamic. In particular, most adjectives that are susceptible to
subjective measurement are capable of being dynamic. Stative and
dynamic adjectives differ in a number of ways. For, example a stative
adjective such as tall cannot be used with the progressive aspect or
with the imperative:
e.g. *He is being tall
* Be tall.
I contrast you can use careful as a dynamic adjective
e.g. - He is being careful
- Be careful
Adjectives that can be used dynamically include: awkward, brave, calm,

careless, cruel, extravagant, foolish, good, funny etc..
B) Gradable/non-gradable
Most adjectives are gradable, that is to say, can be modified by adverbs
which convey the degree of intensity of the adjective. Gradability
includes comparison
- Tall taller tallest

Also other forms of intensification
Very strong so plain extremely useful

All dynamic adjectives are gradable. Most stative adjectives (tall, old)
are gradable; some are non gradable, principally ‘ technical adjectives’
like atomic (scientist) and hydrochloric (acid) and adjective denoting
provenance e.g. British
C) Inherent/ non-inherent
Most adjectives are inherent and it is especially uncommon for dynamic
adjectives to be other than inherent; an exception is wooden in The
actor is being wooden which is both dynamic and non-inherent
• Semantic sets and adjectival order
Semantic sets have been proposed to account for the usual order of adjectives and for
their co- occurrence
1. Intensifying adjectives: e.g. a real hero, a perfect idiot
2. Postdeterminers and limiter adjectives: e.g. the fourth student, the only occasion.
3. General adjectives susceptible to subjective measure, e.g. careful, naughty, lovely
4. General adjectives susceptible to objective measure, including those denoting size
or shape: e.g. wealthy, large, square.
5. Adjectives denoting age: e.g. young, old, new
6. Adjectives denoting colour: e.g. red, yellow,
7. Denominal adjectives denoting material e.g. a woolen scarf, a
metallic substance, and denote resemblance to a material, e.g. metallic
voice, silken hair, cat-like stealth
8. Denominal adjectives denoting provenance or style, e.g. a British
ship, a Parisian dress
• Characteristics of Adverbs
The most common characteristics of the adverb is morphological: the
majority of adverbs have the derivational suffix –ly
There are two types of syntactic function that characterize adverbs, but
an adverb need have only one of these
1) Adverbial
2) Modifier of adjective and adverb
In both cases the adverb functions directly in an ADVERB PHRASE of
which it is head or sole realization.
e.g. Far more easily intelligible

• Adverb as adverbial
An adverb may function as adverbial, a constituent distinct from
subject, verb, object, and complement
There are 3 classes of adverbials:
1. Adjuncts
2. Disjuncts
3. Conjuncts
1. Adjuncts are integrated within the structure of the clause to at least
some extent. e.g.
- They are waiting outside.

- I can now understand it.
- He spoke to me about it briefly.
2. Disjuncts and Conjuncts, on the other hand, are not integrated
within the clause. Semantically, disjuncts express an evaluation of what
is being said either with respect to the form of the communication or to
its content. E.g.:
- Frankly, I am tired.
- Fortunately, no one complained.
- They are probably at home.
Semantically, conjuncts have a connective function. They indicate the
connection between what is being said and what was said before.
E.g.
- We have complained several times about the noise, and yet he does
nothing about it.
- I have not looked into his qualifications. He seems very intelligent,
though.
- If they open all the windows, then I’m leaving.
• Adverb as modifier
(1) Modifier of adjective
An adverb may premodify an adjective:
- That was a very funny film.

- It is extremely good of you.
- She has a really beautiful face
Only the adverb enough postmodifies adjectives
e.g. high enough
Most commonly, the modifying adverb is an intensifier. The most
frequently used intensifier is very. Other intensifiers include
so/pretty/rather/unusually/quite/unbelievably (tall). Many are
restricted to a small set of lexical items, e.g. deeply (anxious), highly
( intelligent)/strikingly (handsome)/sharply (critical). Many intensifiers
can modify adjectives, adverbs, and verbs alike.
Adverbs as modifiers of adjectives may also be ‘viewpoint’
e.g.
Politically expedient = expedient from a political point of view
Technically possible
Theoretically sound
- Viewpoint adjuncts that appear after the noun phrase are related to
the premodifying adjective within the phrase:
e.g.
A good paper editorially can be a good paper commercially
An editorially good paper can be a commercially good paper ( more
usual)
- All, as an informal synonym of completely, premodifies certain

adjectives, mostly having an unfavorable sense:
e.g. he is all upset
His brother is all wrong
(2) Modifier of adverb
An adverb may premodify another adverb, and function as intendifier:

e.g.
- They are smoking very heavily.
- They didn’t injure him that severely. (informal)
- I have seen so very many letters like that one.
But notice
- Clearly enough
(2) Modifier of adverb
A few intensifying adverbs, particularly right and well, premodify

particles in phrasal verbs
e.g.
- He nocked the man right out.
- They left him well behind.
(3) Modifier of prepositional phrase
The few adverbs that premodify particles in phrasal verbs also premodify
prepositions or (perhaps rather) prepositional phrases:
e.g.
- The nail went right through the door.
- His parents are dead against the trip.
(3) Modifier of determiner, predeterminer, postdeterminer
Intensifying adverbs can premodify indefinite pronouns ,
predeterminers and cardinal numerals:
e.g.
- Nearly everybody came to the party
- Over two hundred deaths were reported
- I paid more than ten pounds
(3) Modifier of determiner, predeterminer, postdeterminer
The indefinite article can be intensified when it is equivalent to the

unstressed cardinal one.
e.g. They will stay about a week.
With ordinals and superlatives, a definite determiner is obligatory:
e.g.
She gave me almost the largest piece of cake
(3) Modifier of noun phrase
A few intensifiers may premodify noun phrases: quite, rather and the predeterminers such and
exclamatory what. The noun phrase is normally indefinite, and the intensifiers precede any
determiners. Rather requires the head to be a singular count noun and gradable:
e.g.
- He told such a (funny) story.
funny stories
- I have never heard such wickedness
- It was rather a mess.
- He was quite some player
- What a (big) fool he is
So and interrogative and exclamatory how also precede the indefinite
article, but they require the noun phrase to contain a gradable adjective
and the head of the noun phrase to be a singular countable noun. In this
use, they cause the adjective to move in front of the article:
e.g.
- I didn’t realize that he was so big a fool
- How tall a man is he? How tall a man he is!
Note:
a. In superficially similar noun phrases, rather may be intensifying the
adjective, in which case it may precede or follow the determiner:
e.g.
* It is rather a table
It is rather a big table
It is a rather big table
Note:
b. Kind of and sort of ( both informal) usually follow the determiner:
e.g.
He gave a sort of love
But sometimes precede it:
That was sort of a joke.
Other of phrases precede a determiner:

e.g. I had a bit of a shock
Note:
C. In informal or familiar style, wh-interrogatives can be intensified by ever and by certain set phrases, e.g.
e.g.
- Where ever did I leave my keys?
- Who on earth opened my letter?
- What in heaven’s name are you doing?
- Who the hell are you?
Those intensified by ever are to be distinguished from wh-subordinators which are written as one word with ever
e.g. Wherever I park, I get fined

Some adverbs signifying place or time postmodify noun phrases.

Place: the way ahead, the neighbors upstairs, the sentence below
Time: the meeting yesterday, the day before
Note: Indefinite pronouns, wh-pronouns, and wh-adverbs are postmodified by

else: someone else, all else, who else, what else. Else also postmodifies
compounds with where: somewhere, anywhere, everywhere, nowhere
In some of the phrases above, the adverb can also be used as a premodifier:
e.g. his home journey
the above photo,
the upstairs neighbor
A few other adverbs are also used as premodifiers:
- the away games,
- the then president,
- in after years .
Then and above are probably the most common.
• Adverb as a complement of preposition
Some place and time adverbs function as complement of a preposition. Of the
place adverbs, here and there take the most prepositions: along, around, down,
from, in, near, on, out (of), over, round, through, under, up. Home can be the
complement of prepositions at, from, near, towards. Others are restricted to
the preposition from:
Above, abroad, below, downstairs, indoors, inside, outdoors, outside, upstairs,

within, without
Time adverbs most commonly functioning as complement of prepositions are
shown in the diagram on page 130.

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Adjectives and Adverbs

1. Most of them can be premodified by the intensifier very : e.g. very

2. Most can be superlative and comparative: happy: happier, happiest

The ……perfect……… person

Adjectives can be complement to a subject which is a finite clause

e.g. Whether he will resign is uncertain

Similarly adjectives can be object complement to a clause (finite and non

The adjective functioning as object complement often expresses the

The adjective with the complementation can be regarded as a reduced

e.g. elect (soon to take office) proper ( as strictly defined)

e.g. the house ablaze is next door to mine.

e.g. The (rather) timid soldiers.

e.g. Soldiers timid or cowardly don’t fight well

Timid or cowardly soldiers don’t fight well

e.g. * The easiest to teach boys were in my class.

Postposition is normally possible

e.g. The easiest boys to teach were in my class

But notice that

e.g. He is (not) brave enough a student to attempt the course

- galore and aplenty are postposed obligatorily

e.g. The extremely old need a great deal of attention

Also adjective of nationalities can be heads of noun phrases. In this

e.g. The industrious Dutch are admired by their neighbors .

e.g. He left for good

These adjectives are complements for prepositions

The man restrained the woman, who was aggressive.

We do not have as its equivalent

is semantically equivalent to:

That it was she who initiated divorce proceedings is strange

e.g. Nervously, the man opened the door

Always nervous, the man opened the letter

e.g. Strangely, it was she who initiated divorce proceedings.

e.g. - Enthusiastic, they make good students (= when enthusiastic)

The implied subject can be the whole of the superordinate clause

e.g. How good of you!

e.g. a certain (sure) winner

A complete victory ……………….The victory was complete

e.g. a complete fool………… *the fool is complete

Other examples of amplifiers that are attributive only

Several intensifiers have homonyms that are central adjectives

Many adjectives can be used as intensifiers, usually with restrictions on

My former friend……… formerly my friend

Some require implications additional to the adverbial

e.g. a hard worker a worker who works hard

e.g. a fast car a car that one drives fast

Some of these adjectives have a temporal meaning

Some adjectives derived from nouns are attributive only

- The same item may also be a central adjective

A larger group comprises adjectives that can or must take

- He is afraid to do it ……….. He fears to do it

Some have homonyms that can occur both predicatively and

Adjectives that can be used dynamically include: awkward, brave, calm,

- Tall taller tallest

Also other forms of intensification

Very strong so plain extremely useful

e.g. Far more easily intelligible

- They are waiting outside.

- That was a very funny film.

- All, as an informal synonym of completely, premodifies certain

An adverb may premodify another adverb, and function as intendifier: