PROBLEM

SOLVING &
PROOF
1) Problem solving To focus on problem solving in a way that
will be helpful at all levels of development,
by considering a specific problem whose
solutions illustrate many of the commonly
Problem is the activity that occurs when the How to Solve It suggested for stages:
occurring aspect of good problem – solving
individual(or individuals) concerned is (or 1. Understand the problem
practice .
are) faced with problem situation for which 2. Make a plan
the precise nature of the problem and its 3. Carry out the plan
solution are not initially evident. 4. Look back on your work. How could it be
better?

A typical problem from There are so many ideas can be create where either
thinking mathematically its have same size or not. The thing is about how
is we imagine and clarify the concept of squares.
‘into how many squares
can I cut’

The first problem in

problem solving is often
the need to find out
precisely what the problem
is, and to formulate it
clearly. Thinking mathematically suggest The moral of the story is that
3 levels of operation problem situation may be interpreted
1. Convince yourself in different ways, so the first thing to
274.35
1.1) AN 2. Convince a friend
3. Convince an enemy
do is to clarify precisely what the
problem is.
EXAMPL
1.3) Problem solving in three worlds of mathematics
The way in which an individual recognizes and solves a problem clearly depends on the
individual’s current knowledge structures where it includes the thinkable concepts that are
appropriate and the connections between them.

Problem solvers often fixated on the context in From figure 8.5 & 8.6 what
which the problem is presented. can we understand it?

The teacher can use problem solving situations to help guide learners towards greater
sophistication by being aware of their current knowledge structures and their long term needs.

A standard procedure such as column

2) Lesson study The lesson was an exemplary demonstration of
addition, subtraction, or long a flexible route blending embodiment with
multiplication and division is taught as an symbolism.
explicit sequence of actions and decision.
Various technic where is started at a multi –
structural level of possible procedures &
The lesson had begun with a class moved towards finding a fast easy and
discussion to focus on the nature of the accurate way.
problem.
Experience the flexibility of the use of
It began with an with an air of symbolism and were encourage to see the
expectancy as the teacher reveal the standard algorithm as the most suitable way
concept and the ideas.
 3) Thinking about proof
 As a problems progresses, the question arises as to the proof of a solution.
 It is a matter of putting the ideas together in a coherent mathematical way that makes sense to the individual in a suitable mathematical
framework.
 (Richard Skemp) there are 3 distinct modes of building & testing mathematical concept :
 Personal experience & experiment
 Through communication and discussion
 Through personal creativity and the search for internal consistency.

3.1) development of proof in geometry

 Proof in geometry begin form the practical activities of the child.
 E.g;

 Embodied proofs continue to be of value at higher levels of operations.

 Embodied proofs can also operate in other forms of geometry.
 Hilbert took the major step from embodiment to formalism by translating Euclidean
geometry into set - theoric axiomatic format, proving theorem verbal axioms with
any dependence on implicit properties of pictures,
 3.2) BLENDING 3.3)Development of proof in
EMBODIMENT AND arithmetic & algebra
 MathematicalSYMBOLISM
thinking requires the blending of  The long term – term development of symbolic proof is more
embodiment and symbolism. complicated than embodied proof.

 E.g. to prove the formula for the area of a spherical triangle where  Proof in practical arithmetic begins by performing specific
it involves the blending of “E” and “S” of trigonometry. calculations and seeing the general pattern that occur as generic
proof.

 Proof in practical arithmetic begins by performing specific

calculations and seeing the general pattern that occur as generic
proof.

 At more advance level, formal algebraic structures are defined

based on axioms and set theoretic deductions that lead to formal
proof.

 It is helpful to prepare a carefully organized lesson plan that has

been tested to reveal different possible ways in which a problem
may be posed.

 The idea of blend of embodiment and symbolism illustrate how  A careful choice of an alternative approach may give a better
spherical geometry has different properties from Euclidean learning experience.
geometry.
 3.4) a potentially infinite proof by induction

The formula can also This proof also,

This proof may cause
be proved by induction mathematician often
confusion as it requires
in two similar – consider more rigorous
knowledge of the formula form
looking but subtly than an embodied proof.
the beginning
different.

3.5) a finite formal proof by induction

The induction proof can be recast as a finite proof by introducing an
axiomatic definition of natural number, N.

The symbolic and pictorial show why the argument is meaningful based
on well – established knowledge structure.

The finite proof by induction shifts to the formal mathematics of the

axiomatic formal world.

It requires a transition from a blend of embodied and symbolic

experiences in theoretical mathematics to a knowledge structure based on
formal definition and proof.
The steady development of In everyday practical A colloquial interpretation of the word Shades of meaning may
proof in mathematics involves language we often say ‘if A ‘some’ in many cases seem to be that vary for person to person.
subtle changes in meaning as then B’ to also mean ‘if B it means ‘more than one of a given In formal mathematics, the
the mathematician becomes then A’ but it not happen in set, but without the certain knowledge word ‘some’ simply means
more sophisticated. mathematics. that it is all the set. ‘ at least one’

3.6) proof in life and in

Proof by contradiction mathematics
is a fundamental
watershed for many
student. 3.7) proof by
contradiction

it involves assuming that a Generic proofs work much

Generic proofs may be
statement is either true or false For a student operating at a better for student requiring
appropriate for student
and that assuming it to be false practical level, it may be more theoretical mathematics based
studying practical and
leads to a contradiction, so it profitable to offer a generic proof on practical experience than the
theoretical application of
must be true, to gives a sense of the ideas greater demands of formal
mathematics.
through suitably typical example. mathematics.
 3) The transition from natural
4) formal PROOF 2) In the formal world what
matters is not how the
experiences to formal proof is
☻ Formal axiomatic proof is the current ideal form of proof likely to have problematic
operations are performed, only
desired by most pure mathematicians aspects for reader who does not
what properties that a requires to
☻ The proof itself must follow only by deductions from the have previous experience of
satisfy.
formal definitions without the implicit use of any formality.
extraneous ideas. 1) The initials stages for a
☻ As our knowledge structures mature to incorporate student to make sense of
formal elements, we continue to use connections made 4) A system satisfying the axioms is
axiomatic system builds on
in our brain when we learn simple arithmetic. called a field.
previous experiences.
☻ ‘In Where Mathematics Comes From’ (Lakoff and
Nunez) perform a top-down intellectual ‘idea analysis’  5) Familiar ideas of arithmetic
of the real numbers.
☻ It arrives at dual structure:
4.1) can now be formalized by saying
that element is define as positive
☻ ‘space set’ blend of natural continuous line and a set AXIOMATIC and its addictive inverse is
of points
☻ The symbolism of the decimal numbers SYSTEM
6) Our human brain naturally
negative.
☻ A bottom-up analysis reveals the various aspect of the
blends the formal definitions with
blend arising in a different sequence. our experience of embodiment and
☻ This follow the parallel development of practical and 8) By carefully noting what
symbolism.
theoretical mathematics and the later transition to formal axioms are actually used, it
mathematics that is problematic for most students. will be possible to specify
7) A formal proof steps back to more more precisely under what
fundamentals properties whereas the conditions the theorem is
theoretical experiences in school make true.
student realize related ideology
 4.2) two minuses make a plus

Proving by using axioms

The search for a formal proof Working directly from the Initially a few auxiliary
really need deeply thinking,
considered here uses a problem - axioms as they stand can be results need to be proved
so that it will show the right
solving approach in which we are quite daunting as each axiom to allow the axioms to
way of the ideology of “Two
given the axioms several axioms, is given only in minimal form operate in flexible ways
Minuses Make A Plus”

4.3) organizing a formal proof

1) To write the proof out in a neater fashion, starts with a little preliminary result called a lemma.

Lemma 1 : if a+a=a for an element a in Lemma 2 : if x is any element is a

system satisfying the given axioms, then system satisfying the given axioms, then
a=0. (-a)(-b)=ab

2)The proof is now part of a well – organized sequence of theorems stated and proved from
earlier deductions that can be traced backed to the axioms
 One a formal structure has been framed as an axiomatic
4.4 a wider vista of meaning system and theorems have been proved within the
system, then all the theorems apply in any system that
obeys the axioms.
 If we are looking before example and explanation, the
only axioms used to prove (-a)(-b)=ab, are (0), (A1)-(A4),
(M1)-(M3) and (D), where (O1),(O2) are not used at all.
The deductions in an axiomatic system give the
ultimate form of crystalline concept with
 In other word the result is true in any commutative ring properties deduced from axioms and definitions
where –x denotes the addictive inverse of x satisfying x+
(-x)=0
 Now we can extend the idea that ‘two minuses make a The world of axiomatic
plus’ to further number system that may not be ordered formalism is a new world in
and may not even have elements that can be classified as 4.5 the power of which problem – solving
activities ask new question,
‘positive’ or ‘negative’ , provided that they satisfy the
axioms for a commutative ring. axiomatic proof formulate new hypothesis and
seek new proofs.

The product of research, once formally proved,

may be used by wider communities to apply new
contexts.

This bring us to pint in our journey where we have

 For figure 8.2 and 8.21, we still have a visual formulated the cognitive growth of mathematical
representation that reveals the relationship between x and thinking from embodiment and symbolism to formalism.
–x as symmetry.