Adjacency and Connectivity

Dr S.Natarajan
Professor and Key Resource Person
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
PES University
Bengaluru
natarajan@pes.edu
9945280225
 Adjacency, Connectivity

Adjacency: Two pixels are adjacent if they are neighbors and

their intensity level ‘V’ satisfy some specific criteria of similarity.

e.g. V = {1}
V = { 0, 2}
Binary image = { 0, 1}
Gray scale image = { 0, 1, 2, ------, 255}

In binary images, 2 pixels are adjacent if they are neighbors & have
some intensity values either 0 or 1.

In gray scale, image contains more gray level values in range 0 to

255.
 Adjacency, Connectivity

4-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are 4-
adjacent if q is in the set of N4(p).

e.g. V = { 0, 1}

1 1 0
1 1 0
1 0 1
p in RED color
q can be any value in GREEN color.
 Adjacency, Connectivity

8-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are 8-
adjacent if q is in the set of N8(p).

e.g. V = { 1, 2}

0 1 1
0 2 0
0 0 1
p in RED color
q can be any value in GREEN color
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p) OR

(ii) q is in ND(p) & the set N4(p) ∩ N4(q) have no pixels whose
values are from ‘V’.
e.g. V = { 1 }

0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1i
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p)

e.g. V = { 1 }
(i) b & c
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p)

e.g. V = { 1 }
(i) b & c
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I

Soln: b & c are m-adjacent.

 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p)

e.g. V = { 1 }
(ii) b & e
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p)

e.g. V = { 1 }
(ii) b & e
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I

Soln: b & e are m-adjacent.

 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p) OR

e.g. V = { 1 }
(iii) e & i
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1i
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are m-
adjacent if
(i) q is in ND(p) & the set N4(p) n N4(q) have no pixels whose
values are from ‘V’.
e.g. V = { 1 }
(iii) e & i
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I
 Adjacency, Connectivity

4-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are 4-
adjacent if q is in the set of N4(p).

e.g. V = { 0, 1}

1 1 0
1 1 0
1 0 1
p in RED color
q can be any value in GREEN color.
 Adjacency, Connectivity

8-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are 8-
adjacent if q is in the set of N8(p).

e.g. V = { 1, 2}

0 1 1
0 2 0
0 0 1
p in RED color
q can be any value in GREEN color
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p) OR

(ii) q is in ND(p) & the set N4(p) ∩ N4(q) have no pixels whose
values are from ‘V’.
e.g. V = { 1 }

0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1i
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p)

e.g. V = { 1 }
(i) b & c
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p)

e.g. V = { 1 }
(i) b & c
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I

Soln: b & c are m-adjacent.

 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p)

e.g. V = { 1 }
(ii) b & e
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p)

e.g. V = { 1 }
(ii) b & e
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I

Soln: b & e are m-adjacent.

 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p) OR

e.g. V = { 1 }
(iii) e & i
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1i
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in ND(p) & the set N4(p) ∩ N4(q) have no pixels whose
values are from ‘V’.
e.g. V = { 1 }
(iii) e & i
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in ND(p) & the set N4(p) ∩ N4(q) have no pixels whose
values are from ‘V’.
e.g. V = { 1 }
(iii) e & i
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I

Soln: e & i are m-adjacent.

 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p) OR

(ii) q is in ND(p) & the set N4(p) ∩ N4(q) have no pixels whose
values are from ‘V’.
e.g. V = { 1 }
(iv) e & c
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p) OR

(ii) q is in ND(p) & the set N4(p) ∩ N4(q) have no pixels whose
values are from ‘V’.
e.g. V = { 1 }
(iv) e & c
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I
Soln: e & c are NOT m-adjacent.
 Adjacency, Connectivity

Connectivity: 2 pixels are said to be connected if their exists a path

between them.

Let ‘S’ represent subset of pixels in an image.

Two pixels p & q are said to be connected in ‘S’ if their exists a path
between them consisting entirely of pixels in ‘S’.

For any pixel p in S, the set of pixels that are connected to it in S is called a
connected component of S.
 Paths

Paths: A path from pixel p with coordinate ( x, y) with

pixel q with coordinate ( s, t) is a sequence of distinct
sequence with coordinates (x0, y0), (x1, y1), ….., (xn, yn)
where

(x, y) = (x0, y0)

& (s, t) = (xn, yn)

Closed path: (x0, y0) = (xn, yn)

 Paths
Example # 1: Consider the image segment shown in figure. Compute
length of the shortest-4, shortest-8 & shortest-m paths between pixels p
& q where,
V = {1, 2}.

4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-4 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-4 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-4 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-4 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-4 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-4 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
So, Path does not exist.
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-8 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-8 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-8 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-8 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-8 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-8 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
So, shortest-8 path = 4
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3

So, shortest-m path = 5

 Regions & Boundaries

Region: Let R be a subset of pixels in an image. Two regions Ri and Rj are

said to be adjacent if their union form a connected set.

Regions that are not adjacent are said to be disjoint.

We consider 4- and 8- adjacency when referring to regions.

Below regions are adjacent only if 8-adjacency is used.

1 1 1
1 0 1 Ri
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 1 1 Rj
1 1 1
 Regions & Boundaries

Boundaries (border or contour): The boundary of a region R is

the set of points that are adjacent to points in the compliment of R.

0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0

RED colored 1 is NOT a member of border if 4-connectivity is used

between region and background. It is if 8-connectivity is used.
 Distance Measures

Distance Measures: Distance between pixels p, q & z with co-

ordinates ( x, y), ( s, t) & ( v, w) resp. is given by:

a) D( p, q) ≥ 0 [ D( p, q) = 0 if p = q] …………..called reflexivity
b) D( p, q) = D( q, p) .………….called symmetry
c) D( p, z) ≤ D( p, q) + D( q, z) ..………….called transmitivity

Euclidean distance between p & q is defined as-

De( p, q) = [( x- s)2 + (y - t)2]1/2

 Distance Measures

City Block Distance: The D4 distance between p & q is defined as

D4( p, q) = |x - s| + |y - t|

In this case, pixels having D4 distance from ( x, y) less than or equal

to some value r form a diamond centered at ( x, y).
2
2 1 2
2 1 0 1 2
2 1 2
2
Pixels with D4 distance ≤ 2 forms the following contour of constant
distance.
 Distance Measures

Chess-Board Distance: The D8 distance between p & q is

defined as

D8( p, q) = max( |x - s| , |y - t| )

In this case, pixels having D8 distance from ( x, y) less than or equal

to some value r form a square centered at ( x, y).
2 2 2 2 2
2 1 1 1 2
2 1 0 1 2
2 1 1 1 2
2 2 2 2 2
Pixels with D8 distance ≤ 2 forms the following contour of constant
distance.
 Adjacency, Connectivity

4-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are 4-
adjacent if q is in the set of N4(p).

e.g. V = { 0, 1}

1 1 0
1 1 0
1 0 1
p in RED color
q can be any value in GREEN color.
 Adjacency, Connectivity

8-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are 8-
adjacent if q is in the set of N8(p).

e.g. V = { 1, 2}

0 1 1
0 2 0
0 0 1
p in RED color
q can be any value in GREEN color
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p) OR

(ii) q is in ND(p) & the set N4(p) ∩ N4(q) have no pixels whose
values are from ‘V’.
e.g. V = { 1 }

0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1i
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p)

e.g. V = { 1 }
(i) b & c
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p)

e.g. V = { 1 }
(i) b & c
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I

Soln: b & c are m-adjacent.

 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p)

e.g. V = { 1 }
(ii) b & e
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p)

e.g. V = { 1 }
(ii) b & e
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I

Soln: b & e are m-adjacent.

 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p) OR

e.g. V = { 1 }
(iii) e & i
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1i
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in ND(p) & the set N4(p) ∩ N4(q) have no pixels whose
values are from ‘V’.
e.g. V = { 1 }
(iii) e & i
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in ND(p) & the set N4(p) ∩ N4(q) have no pixels whose
values are from ‘V’.
e.g. V = { 1 }
(iii) e & i
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I

Soln: e & i are m-adjacent.

 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p) OR

(ii) q is in ND(p) & the set N4(p) ∩ N4(q) have no pixels whose
values are from ‘V’.
e.g. V = { 1 }
(iv) e & c
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p) OR

(ii) q is in ND(p) & the set N4(p) ∩ N4(q) have no pixels whose
values are from ‘V’.
e.g. V = { 1 }
(iv) e & c
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I
Soln: e & c are NOT m-adjacent.
 Adjacency, Connectivity

Connectivity: 2 pixels are said to be connected if their exists a path

between them.

Let ‘S’ represent subset of pixels in an image.

Two pixels p & q are said to be connected in ‘S’ if their exists a path
between them consisting entirely of pixels in ‘S’.

For any pixel p in S, the set of pixels that are connected to it in S is called a
connected component of S.
 Paths

Paths: A path from pixel p with coordinate ( x, y) with

pixel q with coordinate ( s, t) is a sequence of distinct
sequence with coordinates (x0, y0), (x1, y1), ….., (xn, yn)
where

(x, y) = (x0, y0)

& (s, t) = (xn, yn)

Closed path: (x0, y0) = (xn, yn)

 Paths
Example # 1: Consider the image segment shown in figure. Compute
length of the shortest-4, shortest-8 & shortest-m paths between pixels p
& q where,
V = {1, 2}.

4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-4 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-4 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-4 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-4 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-4 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-4 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
So, Path does not exist.
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-8 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-8 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-8 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-8 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-8 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-8 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
So, shortest-8 path = 4
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3

So, shortest-m path = 5

 Regions & Boundaries

Region: Let R be a subset of pixels in an image. Two regions Ri and Rj are

said to be adjacent if their union form a connected set.

Regions that are not adjacent are said to be disjoint.

We consider 4- and 8- adjacency when referring to regions.

Below regions are adjacent only if 8-adjacency is used.

1 1 1
1 0 1 Ri
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 1 1 Rj
1 1 1
 Regions & Boundaries

Boundaries (border or contour): The boundary of a region R is

the set of points that are adjacent to points in the compliment of R.

0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0

RED colored 1 is NOT a member of border if 4-connectivity is used

between region and background. It is if 8-connectivity is used.
 Distance Measures

Distance Measures: Distance between pixels p, q & z with co-

ordinates ( x, y), ( s, t) & ( v, w) resp. is given by:

a) D( p, q) ≥ 0 [ D( p, q) = 0 if p = q] …………..called reflexivity
b) D( p, q) = D( q, p) .………….called symmetry
c) D( p, z) ≤ D( p, q) + D( q, z) ..………….called transmitivity

Euclidean distance between p & q is defined as-

De( p, q) = [( x- s)2 + (y - t)2]1/2

 Distance Measures

City Block Distance: The D4 distance between p & q is defined as

D4( p, q) = |x - s| + |y - t|

In this case, pixels having D4 distance from ( x, y) less than or equal

to some value r form a diamond centered at ( x, y).
2
2 1 2
2 1 0 1 2
2 1 2
2
Pixels with D4 distance ≤ 2 forms the following contour of constant
distance.
 Distance Measures

Chess-Board Distance: The D8 distance between p & q is

defined as

D8( p, q) = max( |x - s| , |y - t| )

In this case, pixels having D8 distance from ( x, y) less than or equal

to some value r form a square centered at ( x, y).
2 2 2 2 2
2 1 1 1 2
2 1 0 1 2
2 1 1 1 2
2 2 2 2 2
Pixels with D8 distance ≤ 2 forms the following contour of constant
distance.
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in ND(p) & the set N4(p) n N4(q) have no pixels whose
values are from ‘V’.
e.g. V = { 1 }
(iii) e & i
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I

Soln: e & i are m-adjacent.

 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p) OR

(ii) q is in ND(p) & the set N4(p) n N4(q) have no pixels whose
values are from ‘V’.
e.g. V = { 1 }
(iv) e & c
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I
 Adjacency, Connectivity

4-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are 4-
adjacent if q is in the set of N4(p).

e.g. V = { 0, 1}

1 1 0
1 1 0
1 0 1
p in RED color
q can be any value in GREEN color.
 Adjacency, Connectivity

8-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are 8-
adjacent if q is in the set of N8(p).

e.g. V = { 1, 2}

0 1 1
0 2 0
0 0 1
p in RED color
q can be any value in GREEN color
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p) OR

(ii) q is in ND(p) & the set N4(p) ∩ N4(q) have no pixels whose
values are from ‘V’.
e.g. V = { 1 }

0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1i
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p)

e.g. V = { 1 }
(i) b & c
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p)

e.g. V = { 1 }
(i) b & c
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I

Soln: b & c are m-adjacent.

 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p)

e.g. V = { 1 }
(ii) b & e
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p)

e.g. V = { 1 }
(ii) b & e
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I

Soln: b & e are m-adjacent.

 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p) OR

e.g. V = { 1 }
(iii) e & i
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1i
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in ND(p) & the set N4(p) ∩ N4(q) have no pixels whose
values are from ‘V’.
e.g. V = { 1 }
(iii) e & i
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in ND(p) & the set N4(p) ∩ N4(q) have no pixels whose
values are from ‘V’.
e.g. V = { 1 }
(iii) e & i
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I

Soln: e & i are m-adjacent.

 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p) OR

(ii) q is in ND(p) & the set N4(p) ∩ N4(q) have no pixels whose
values are from ‘V’.
e.g. V = { 1 }
(iv) e & c
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p) OR

(ii) q is in ND(p) & the set N4(p) ∩ N4(q) have no pixels whose
values are from ‘V’.
e.g. V = { 1 }
(iv) e & c
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I
Soln: e & c are NOT m-adjacent.
 Adjacency, Connectivity

Connectivity: 2 pixels are said to be connected if their exists a path

between them.

Let ‘S’ represent subset of pixels in an image.

Two pixels p & q are said to be connected in ‘S’ if their exists a path
between them consisting entirely of pixels in ‘S’.

For any pixel p in S, the set of pixels that are connected to it in S is called a
connected component of S.
 Paths

Paths: A path from pixel p with coordinate ( x, y) with

pixel q with coordinate ( s, t) is a sequence of distinct
sequence with coordinates (x0, y0), (x1, y1), ….., (xn, yn)
where

(x, y) = (x0, y0)

& (s, t) = (xn, yn)

Closed path: (x0, y0) = (xn, yn)

 Paths
Example # 1: Consider the image segment shown in figure. Compute
length of the shortest-4, shortest-8 & shortest-m paths between pixels p
& q where,
V = {1, 2}.

4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-4 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-4 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-4 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-4 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-4 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-4 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
So, Path does not exist.
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-8 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-8 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-8 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-8 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-8 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-8 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
So, shortest-8 path = 4
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3

So, shortest-m path = 5

 Regions & Boundaries

Region: Let R be a subset of pixels in an image. Two regions Ri and Rj are

said to be adjacent if their union form a connected set.

Regions that are not adjacent are said to be disjoint.

We consider 4- and 8- adjacency when referring to regions.

Below regions are adjacent only if 8-adjacency is used.

1 1 1
1 0 1 Ri
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 1 1 Rj
1 1 1
 Regions & Boundaries

Boundaries (border or contour): The boundary of a region R is

the set of points that are adjacent to points in the compliment of R.

0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0

RED colored 1 is NOT a member of border if 4-connectivity is used

between region and background. It is if 8-connectivity is used.
 Distance Measures

Distance Measures: Distance between pixels p, q & z with co-

ordinates ( x, y), ( s, t) & ( v, w) resp. is given by:

a) D( p, q) ≥ 0 [ D( p, q) = 0 if p = q] …………..called reflexivity
b) D( p, q) = D( q, p) .………….called symmetry
c) D( p, z) ≤ D( p, q) + D( q, z) ..………….called transmitivity

Euclidean distance between p & q is defined as-

De( p, q) = [( x- s)2 + (y - t)2]1/2

 Distance Measures

City Block Distance: The D4 distance between p & q is defined as

D4( p, q) = |x - s| + |y - t|

In this case, pixels having D4 distance from ( x, y) less than or equal

to some value r form a diamond centered at ( x, y).
2
2 1 2
2 1 0 1 2
2 1 2
2
Pixels with D4 distance ≤ 2 forms the following contour of constant
distance.
 Distance Measures

Chess-Board Distance: The D8 distance between p & q is

defined as

D8( p, q) = max( |x - s| , |y - t| )

In this case, pixels having D8 distance from ( x, y) less than or equal

to some value r form a square centered at ( x, y).
2 2 2 2 2
2 1 1 1 2
2 1 0 1 2
2 1 1 1 2
2 2 2 2 2
Pixels with D8 distance ≤ 2 forms the following contour of constant
distance.
 Adjacency, Connectivity

m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with the values from set ‘V’ are
m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p) OR

(ii) q is in ND(p) & the set N4(p) n N4(q) have no pixels whose
values are from ‘V’.
e.g. V = { 1 }
(iv) e & c
0a 1b 1c
0d 1e 0f
0g 0h 1I
Soln: e & c are NOT m-adjacent.
 Adjacency, Connectivity

Connectivity: 2 pixels are said to be connected if their exists a path

between them.

Let ‘S’ represent subset of pixels in an image.

Two pixels p & q are said to be connected in ‘S’ if their exists a path
between them consisting entirely of pixels in ‘S’.

For any pixel p in S, the set of pixels that are connected to it in S is called a
connected component of S.
 Paths

Paths: A path from pixel p with coordinate ( x, y) with

pixel q with coordinate ( s, t) is a sequence of distinct
sequence with coordinates (x0, y0), (x1, y1), ….., (xn, yn)
where

(x, y) = (x0, y0)

& (s, t) = (xn, yn)

Closed path: (x0, y0) = (xn, yn)

 Paths
Example # 1: Consider the image segment shown in figure. Compute
length of the shortest-4, shortest-8 & shortest-m paths between pixels p
& q where,
V = {1, 2}.

4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-4 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-4 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-4 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-4 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-4 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-4 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
So, Path does not exist.
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-8 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-8 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-8 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-8 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-8 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-8 path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
So, shortest-8 path = 4
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3
 Paths
Example # 1:

Shortest-m path:

V = {1, 2}.
4 2 3 2q
3 3 1 3
2 3 2 2
p2 1 2 3

So, shortest-m path = 5

 Regions & Boundaries

Region: Let R be a subset of pixels in an image. Two regions Ri and Rj are

said to be adjacent if their union form a connected set.

Regions that are not adjacent are said to be disjoint.

We consider 4- and 8- adjacency when referring to regions.

Below regions are adjacent only if 8-adjacency is used.

1 1 1
1 0 1 Ri
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 1 1 Rj
1 1 1
 Regions & Boundaries

Boundaries (border or contour): The boundary of a region R is

the set of points that are adjacent to points in the compliment of R.

0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0

RED colored 1 is NOT a member of border if 4-connectivity is used

between region and background. It is if 8-connectivity is used.
 Distance Measures

Distance Measures: Distance between pixels p, q & z with co-

ordinates ( x, y), ( s, t) & ( v, w) resp. is given by:

a) D( p, q) ≥ 0 [ D( p, q) = 0 if p = q] …………..called reflexivity
b) D( p, q) = D( q, p) .………….called symmetry
c) D( p, z) ≤ D( p, q) + D( q, z) ..………….called transmitivity

Euclidean distance between p & q is defined as-

De( p, q) = [( x- s)2 + (y - t)2]1/2

 Distance Measures

City Block Distance: The D4 distance between p & q is defined as

D4( p, q) = |x - s| + |y - t|

In this case, pixels having D4 distance from ( x, y) less than or equal

to some value r form a diamond centered at ( x, y).
2
2 1 2
2 1 0 1 2
2 1 2
2
Pixels with D4 distance ≤ 2 forms the following contour of constant
distance.
 Distance Measures

Chess-Board Distance: The D8 distance between p & q is

defined as

D8( p, q) = max( |x - s| , |y - t| )

In this case, pixels having D8 distance from ( x, y) less than or equal

to some value r form a square centered at ( x, y).
2 2 2 2 2
2 1 1 1 2
2 1 0 1 2
2 1 1 1 2
2 2 2 2 2
Pixels with D8 distance ≤ 2 forms the following contour of constant
distance.