DATABASE

MANAGEME
NT SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
DATA
- known facts that could be recorded and stored on Computer
Media.

INFORMATION
- is processed, organized or summarized data.

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Data are processed to create information. The recipient receives the information and then
makes a decision and takes an action, which may triggers other actions

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INTRODUCTION
Three major key attributes of information:
1. ACCURACY – It means that the information is free from errors and it
clearly reflects the meaning of data on which it is based.
2. TIMELINESS – It means that the recipients receive the information
when they need it.
3. RELEVANCY – It means the usefulness of the piece of information for
the corresponding persons.

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 INTRODUCTION
META DATA - the data about the data
-describes objects in the database and makes easier for those
objects to be accessed or manipulated.

Three main types:

1. DESCRIPTIVE META DATA – describes a resource for purpose such
as discovery and identification.
2. STRUCTURAL META DATA – describes how compound objects are
put together.
3. ADMINISTRATIVE META DATA – provides information to help
manage resource.

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 INTRODUCTION
DATA DICTIONARY – contains information of the data stored
in the database and is consulted by the DBMS before any manipulation
operation on the database.

Two types:
1. ACTIVE DATA DICTIONARY – It is managed automatically by the
DBMS.
2. PASSIVE DATA DICTIONARY – It is used only for documentation
purposes and the data are maintained into the dictionary for cross
references.

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 INTRODUCTION
DATABASE – collection of interrelated data stored together with
controlled redundancy to serve one or more applications in an optimal way.

Database are organized by:

▸ FIELDS – is the smallest unit of the data that has meaning to its users.
▸ RECORDS – is a collection of logically related fields and each field is
possessing a fixed number of bytes and is of fixed data type.
▸ FILES – is a collection of related records.

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INTRODUCTION

COMPONENTS OF A DATABASE
1. DATA ITEM – is a distinct piece of information.
2. RELATIONSHIPS – represents a correspondence between various
data elements.
3. CONSTRAINTS – the predicates that define correct database
states.
4. SCHEMA – describes the organization of data and relationships
within the database.

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
- program or group of programs that work in conjunction with the operating system to create,
process, store, retrieve, control and manage the data.

PRIMARY FUNCTIONS:
1. Define, create and organize a database
2. Input data
3. Process data
4. Maintain data integrity and security
5. Query database

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Data Definition Language (DDL)
- It allows the users to define the database, specify the data
types, data structures and the constraints on the data to be
stored in the database.

Data Manipulation Language (DML) and Query Language

- DML allows users to insert, update, delete and retrieve data
from the database. SQL provides general query facility.

Software for Controlled Access of Database

- This software provides the facility of controlled access of the
database, concurrency control and a recovery control system

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TRADITIONAL FILE SYSTEM
▸ It was totally computer based system where all the information is store in different computer files.
▸ each file is independent of other file and data in the different files can be integrated only by writing an
individual program for each application. 

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ADVANTAGES OF TRADITIONAL FILE SYSTEM
▸ Simple to use
▸ Less complex
▸ Minimal investment
▸ No requirement of the specialist

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DISADVANTAGES OF
TRADITIONAL FILE SYSTEM
1. Data Redundancy 1. Limited Data Sharing
2. Data Inconsistency 2. Poor Data Control
3. Program Dependence 3. Problem of Security
4. Data Dependence 4. Data Manipulation Capability is
Inadequate

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DATABASE SYSTEMS
▸ a collection of interrelated data's stored in a database server
▸ The aim of the database is to provide a way to store and retrieve database
information in a fast and efficient manner.

MAJOR COMPONENTS:
1. Data
2. Hardware
3. Software
4. Users

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ADVANTAGES OF DATABASE SYSTEMS

1. Controlled redundancy 1. Improved security

2. Data consistency 2. Data access is efficient
3. Program data independence 3. Improved backup and recovery
4. Sharing of data facility
5. Improved data integrity 4. Increased programmer productivity

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DISADVANTAGES OF DATABASE SYSTEMS
1. Complexity increases
2. Requirement of more disk space
3. Additional cost of hardware
4. Cost of conversion
5. Need of additional and specialized manpower
6. Need for backup and recovery
7. Organizational conflict
8. More installation and management cost

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DBMS USERS
DBMS Users
- The users of a database system can be classified into various categories depending upon their interaction
and degree of expertise of the DBMS
End Users or Naive Users
- The end users or naive users use the database system through a menu-oriented application program,
where the type and range of response is always displayed on the screen. The user need not be aware of the
presence of the database system and is instructed through each step. A user of an ATM falls in this
category.
Online Users
- These type of users communicate with the database directly through an online terminal or indirectly
through an application program and user interface. They know about the existence of the database system
and may have some knowledge about the limited interaction they are permitted.

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DBMS USERS
Application Programmers
- These are the professional programmers or software developers who develop the application programs or
user interfaces for the naive and online users. These programmers must have the knowledge of
programming languages such as Assembly, C, C++, Java, or SQL, etc., since the application programs are
written in these languages.
Database Administrator
Database Administrator (DBA) is a person who has complete control over database of any enterprise. DBA
is responsible for overall performance of database. He is free to take decisions for database and provides
technical support. He is concerned with the Back-End of any project.

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Some of the main responsibilities of DBA are as follows:
1. Deciding the conceptual schema or contents of database
2. Deciding the internal schema of structure of physical storage
3. Deciding users
4. Deciding user view
5. Granting of authorities
6. Deciding constraints
7. Security
8. Monitoring the performance
9. Backup
10. Removal of dump and maintain free space
11. Checks
12. Liaisioning with users

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DataBase or DBMS Languages
▸ The DBMS provides different languages and interfaces for each category of users to express database queries and
updations. When the design of the database is complete and the DBMS is chosen to implement it, the first thing to be
done is to specify the conceptual and internal schemas for the database and the corresponding mappings.

The following five languages are available to specify different schemas.

Data Definition Language (DDL) - It is used to specify a database conceptual schema using set of definitions. It supports
the definition or declaration of database objects.
Storage Definition Language (SDL) - It is used to specify the internal schema in the database. The storage structure and
access methods used by the database system are specified by the specified set of SDL statements.
View Definition Language (VDL) - It is used to specify user’s views and their mappings to the conceptual schema. But
generally, DDL is used to specify both conceptual and external schemas in many DBMS’s. There are two views of data the
logical view—that is perceived by the programmer and physical view—data stored on storage devices.

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Schemas, Subschema and Instances
A schema is plan of the database that give the names of the entities and attributes and the relationship among them. A schema
includes the definition of the database name, the record type and the components that make up the records.
Generally, a schema can be partitioned into two categories, i.e.
• The logical schema is concerned with exploiting the data structures offered by the DBMS so that the schema becomes
understandable to the computer. It is important as programs use it to construct applications.
• The physical schema is concerned with the manner in which the conceptual database gets represented in the computer as
a stored database. It is hidden behind the logical schema and can usually be modified without affecting the application
programs.

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Schemas, Subschema and Instances

A subschema is a subset of the schema having the same properties that a schema has. It identifies a subset
of areas, sets, records, and data names defined in the database schema available to user sessions.

The data in the database at a particular moment of time is called an instance or a database state. In a given
instance, each schema construct has its own current set of instances.

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Three Level Architecture of Database Systems (DBMS)

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Three Level Architecture of Database Systems (DBMS)
Levels or Views
The three levels or views are discussed below:
1. Internal Level : Internal level describes the actual physical storage of data or the way in which the data is
actually stored in memory
2. Conceptual Level : The conceptual level is also known as logical level which describes the overall logical
structure of whole database for a community of users.
3. External Level : The external level is concerned with individual users. This level describes the actual view
of data seen by individual users.

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DATA MODELS
- is a collection of concepts that can be used to describe the structure of the database including data types,
relationships and the constraints that apply on the data.

Characteristics of Data Models

(i) Diagrammatic representation of the data model.
(ii) Simplicity in designing
(iii) Application independent, so that different applications can share it.
(iv) Data representation must be without duplication.
(v) Bottom-up approach must be followed.
(vi) Consistency and structure validation must be maintained.

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DATA MODELS
Types of Data Models

(i) Record Based Data Models.

(ii) Object Based Data Models.
(iii) Physical Data Models.

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RECORD BASED DATA MODELS
- These models represent data by using the record structures.
Three types:
(a) Hierarchical Data Model - is one of the oldest database models. The hierarchical data model organizes
records in a tree structure.

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RECORD BASED DATA MODELS
(b) Network Data Model - As a result of limitations in the hierarchical model, designers developed the
Network Model. The ability of this model to handle many to many (N : N) relations between its records is
the main distinguishing feature from the hierarchical model.

(c) Relational Data Model - The Relational Model is considered one of the most popular developments in
the database technology because it can be used for representing most of the real world objects and the
relationships between them.

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OBJECT BASED DATA MODELS
- These models are used in describing the data at the logical and user view levels.
Four types:
(a) Entity Relationship Model (ER-Model) - The E-R model is a high level conceptual data model to
facilitate database design. The E-R model is the generalization of earlier available commercial model like
the hierarchical and network model.

(b) Object Oriented Model - Object-oriented data model is a logical data model that captures the
semantics of objects supported in an object-oriented programming. It is based on collection of objects,
attributes and relationships which together form the static properties.

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OBJECT BASED DATA MODELS
Advantages of Object-Oriented Data Models
(i) Capability to handle various data types
(ii) Improved data access
(iii) Improved productivity
(iv) Integrated application development system
 
Disadvantages of Object-Oriented Data Models
(i) Not suitable for all applications
(ii) No precise definition
(iii) Difficult to maintain

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OBJECT BASED DATA MODELS
(c) Semantic Data Model - These models are used to express greater interdependencies among entities of
interest. These interdependencies enable the models to represent the semantic of the data in the database.

(d) Functional Data Model - The functional data model describes those aspects of a system concerned
with transformation of values-functions, mappings, constraints and functional dependencies. The
functional data model describes the computations within a system.

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PHYSICAL DATA MODELS
- These models provide the concepts that describes the details of how the data is stored in the computer
along with their record structures, access paths and ordering.

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TYPES OF DATABASE SYSTEMS

The database systems can be classified into three

categories :
1. According to the number of users
2. According to the type of use
3. According to database site locations

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TYPES OF DATABASE SYSTEMS
According to the Number of Users
a. Single – user database systems - the database reside on a PC–on the hard disk.
All the applications run on the same PC and directly access the database.

b. Multiuser database systems - many PC’s are connected through a Local Area
Network (LAN) and a file server stores a copy of the database files.

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TYPES OF DATABASE SYSTEMS

According to the Number of Users

Advantages of Multiuser Database System
There are many advantages of multiuser database system. Some of them are as follows:
(i) Ability to share data among various users.
(ii) Cost of storage is now divided among various users.
(iii) Low cost since most components are now commodity items.

Disadvantages of Multiuser Database System

The major disadvantage of the multiuser database system is that it has a limited data sharing ability
i.e., only a few users can share the data at most.

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TYPES OF DATABASE SYSTEMS
According to the Type of Use
▸ Production or Transactional Database Systems – The production database
systems are used for management of supply chain and for tracking production of items in
factories, inventories of items in warehouses/stores and orders for items.

▸ Decision Support Database System – Decision support database systems are

interactive, computer-based systems that aid users in judgment and choice activities.

▸ Data Warehouses – A data warehouse is a relational database management system

(RDMS) designed specifically to meet the transaction processing system.

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TYPES OF DATABASE SYSTEMS
According to the Database Site Locations
(a) Centralized database systems : The centralized database system consists of a single processor together with
its associated data storage devices and other peripherals. Database files resides on a personal computer (small
enterprise) or on a mainframe computer (large enterprise).

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TYPES OF DATABASE SYSTEMS
According to the Database Site Locations
Advantages of Centralized Database System
(i) The control over applications and security is excellent.
(ii) The incremental cost per user is very low.
(iii) The centralized systems are highly reliable due to proven mainframe technology.
(iv) Many functions such as query, backup, update etc., are easier to accomplish.

Disadvantages of Centralized Database System

(i) The users are not able to effectively manipulate data outside of standard applications.
(ii) The system is not able to effectively serve advance user interfaces.
(iii) The failure of central computer blocks every user from using the system until the system comes back.
(iv) The communication costs from the terminal to the central computer is a matter of concern.

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TYPES OF DATABASE SYSTEMS
According to the Database Site Locations
(b) Parallel database systems : A parallel database system can be defined as a database system implemented on a
tightly coupled multiprocessor or on a loosely coupled multiprocessor.

There are three main architectures for parallel database system:

(i) Shared memory architecture
(ii) Shared disk architecture
(iii) Shared nothing architecture.

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TYPES OF DATABASE SYSTEMS
According to the Database Site Location
Advantages of Parallel Database System
(i) These are very useful in the applications where large databases have to be queried or where extremely large number of
transactions per second has to be processed.
(ii) The response time is very high.
(iii) The throughput is also very high.
(iv) The input/output speeds and processing is very high.
(v) They have greater scalability and reliability than single processor system.
Disadvantages of Parallel Database System
(i) Due to start-up cost and start-up time, the overall speed up is adversely affected.
(ii) Due to processes executed in parallel, sharing the resources, a slow down may result offer each new process as it
competes with existing processes for the resources.

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TYPES OF DATABASE SYSTEMS
According to the Database Site Locations
(c) Distributed database systems - A distributed database system
is a database system, in which, the data is spread across a variety of
different databases.

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TYPES OF DATABASE SYSTEMS
According to the Database Site Locations
Advantages of Distributed Database Systems
1. Improved sharing ability
2. Local autonomy
3. Availability
4. Reliability
5. Improved performance
6. Easier expansion
7. Reduced communications overhead and better response time
8. More economical
9. Direct user interaction
10. No a single point failure
11. Processor independence.

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TYPES OF DATABASE SYSTEMS
According to the Database Site Locations
Disadvantages of Distributed Database Systems
1. Architectural complexity
2. Lack of standards
3. Lack of professional support
4. Data integrity problems
5. Problem of security
6. High cost
7. Complex database design.

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TYPES OF DATABASE SYSTEMS
According to the Database Site Locations
(d) Client/Server Database System - With the development of technology,
hardware cost become cheaper and cheaper and more personal computers are
used.

Components of Client-Server Architecture

1. Server
2. Client
3. Network interface

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TYPES OF DATABASE SYSTEMS
According to the Database Site Locations
1. Server : Server is DBMS itself. It consists of DBMS and supports all basic DBMS functions. Server
components of DBMS are installed at server.
Functions of Server :
1. It supports all basic DBMS functions.
2. Monitor all his clients.
3. Distribute work-load over clients.
4. Solve problems which are not solved by clients.
5. Maintain security and privacy.
6. Avoiding unauthorized access of data.
2. Clients : Client machine is a personal computer or workstation which provide services to both server and
users.
3. Network Interface : Clients are connected to server by network interface. It is useful in connecting the server
interface with user interface so that server can run his applications over his clients.

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TYPES OF DATABASE SYSTEMS
According to the Database Site Locations
Advantages of Client-Server Database System
1. It increase the overall performance of DBMS.
2. Load can be distributed among clients.
3. It provides better user interface.
4. It is used to develop highly complex applications.
5. Clients with different operating systems can be connected with each other.
6. Single copy of DBMS is shared.
7. It reduces cost.
Disadvantages of Client-Server Database System
1. Network is error prone.
2. It is a kind of centralized system. If server is crashed or failed, there is loss of data.
3. Recovery is typical and additional burden on DBMS server to handle concurrency control.
4. Programming cost is high.
5. The implementation is more complex since one needs to deal with the middle ware and the network

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 GROUP 2
Balubar, Julmer John
T.
Jalaluddin, Ainee B.
Que, Angelica B.
Sana, Sitti Nasra L.
Strong, Jamielyn A.

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