Intermolecular Forces of

Liquids and Solids;

Solids and their

Properties
Crystalline Solids

Amorphous Solids
Solids can be categorized into two groups:

The differences in properties of these two groups of solids arise from the
presence or absence of long range order of arrangements of the
particles in the solid.
 Features that distinguish a crystalline solid from an
amorphous solid?

• Arrangement of particles
 The components of a solid can be arranged in two general ways:
• they can form a regular repeating three-dimensional structure called
a crystal lattice,
• thus producing a crystalline solid
 Amorphous solids consist of particles of irregular shape

• (from the Greek ámorphos, meaning “shapeless”).

 Crystalline Solids Amorphous Solids

 arranged in fixed geometric patterns  have a random orientation of

or lattices particles
The ordered arrangement of their They are considered super-cooled
units maximizes the space they liquids where molecules are
occupy and are essentially arranged in a random manner similar
incompressible. to the liquid state.
They have structures formed by do not have long range order, but
repeating three dimensional patterns. may have a limited, localized order
The repetition of structural units of in their structures.
the substance over long atomic  also referred as short-range order.
distances is referred to as long-range
order.
 • Behavior when heated
 The presence or absence of long-range order in the structure of solids results in a
difference in the behavior of the solid when heated.

Crystalline Solids Amorphous Solids

• The surroundings of particles in the structure are • soften gradually when they are heated.
uniform, and the attractive forces experienced • They tend to melt over a wide range of
by the particles are of similar types and strength. temperature.
• These attractive forces are broken by the same • This behavior is a result of the variation in the
amount of energy, and thus, crystals become arrangement of particles in their structures,
liquids at a specific temperature (i.e. the causing some parts of the solid to melt ahead of
melting point). other parts.
Four Types of
Crystals
 Metallic Crystals
 made of atoms that readily lose electrons to form positive ions
(cations), but no atoms in the crystal would readily gain electrons.
 The metal atoms give up their electrons to the whole crystal,
creating a structure made up of an orderly arrangement of cations
surrounded by delocalized electrons that move around the crystal.
 The crystal is held together by electrostatic interactions between
the cations and delocalized electron.
These interactions are called metallic bonds.
This model of metallic bonding is called the “sea of electrons”
model.
Metallic Crystals
 Metallic Crystals
Observed property Inference about the structure
Dense Atoms are packed close together.
High melting point Strong attractive forces hold the atoms in the crystal.
Good electrical conductor Charged particles move through the crystal.
Good heat conductor Particles can move through the crystal.
When the crystal is deformed or stress is applied,
Malleable and ductile the attractive forces are not broken.
Lustrous Light is easily absorbed and emitted back.
 IONIC CRYSTALS
made of ions (cations and anions)
These ions form strong electrostatic interactions that hold
the crystal lattice together.
Ionic substances can conduct electricity in the liquid or
molten state or when dissolved in water, indicating that in
these states, charged particles are able to move and carry
electricity.
However, the solid state is generally non-conducting since
the ions are in fixed positions in the crystal lattice and are
unable to move from one point to another.
 IONIC CRYSTALS
 Ionic crystals are brittle, and would shatter into small pieces when
deformed or when pressure is applied on the crystal.
• The shifting of ions cause repulsions between particles of like
charges.
 MOLECULAR CRYSTALS
made of atoms, such as in noble gases, or molecules, such as in sugar,
(C12H22O ), iodine (I2), and naphthalene (C10H8).
11

 hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole and dispersion forces, and these are

the attractive forces that are broken when the crystal melts.
 COVALENT CRYSTALS
Atoms in covalent solids are covalently bonded with their neighbors,
creating, in effect, one giant molecule.
 Covalent (or network) solids are extended- lattice compounds, in which
each atom is covalently bonded to its nearest neighbors. Because there
are no delocalized electrons, covalent solids do not conduct electricity.
The rearranging or breaking of covalent bonds requires large amounts of
energy; therefore, covalent solids have high melting points.
Covalent bonds are extremely strong, so covalent solids are very hard.
Generally, covalent solids are insoluble due to the difficulty of solvating
very large molecules.
 • Graphite, an allotrope of carbon, differs
• Diamonds are an example of a in properties from other network solids.
covalent network solid in which
atoms are covalently bonded • It is soft and is used as a solid lubricant.
with each other.
• It is also a good conductor of electricity,
• They tend to be hard and have indicating the presence of charged
high melting points. particles that move through the crystal.
 Reading Commentary on Crystal Formation
Read about a crystal of your choice and write a four-six
paragraph essay by answering the following questions. Cite your
sources.

1. How is the crystal formed?

2. Is it beneficial or harmful to man or both? Discuss how it is
beneficial or harmful to man.
3. If it is something harmful, what can be done to avoid its
formation? If it is something beneficial, how can its formation
be promoted?
Phase Changes
Review: Phases of Matter
• Solid (slowest)

• Liquid (medium)

• Gas (fast)
What is a Phase Change?
• Is a change from one state of matter
(solid, liquid, gas ) to another

• Phase changes are physical changes because:

- It only affects physical appearance, not
chemical make-up.

- Reversible
What happens during a phase change?

• During a phase change, heat energy is

either absorbed or released.

• Heat energy is released as molecules

slow down and move closer together.

• Heat energy is absorbed as molecules

speed up and expand.
Energy and Phase Changes
• Energy is either absorbed or released during a phase
change

• Endothermic – the system absorbs energy from its

surroundings; energy goes IN

• Exothermic – the system releases energy to its

surroundings; energy goes OUT
• “Exo”  think of “exit”
Energy and Phase Changes
Types of Phase Changes
 Melting
• solid  liquid

• Molecules speed up,

move farther apart, and
absorb heat energy

• Endothermic
Freezing
• liquid solid

• Molecules slow down,

move closer together and
release heat energy.

• Exothermic
 Evaporation
•Liquid  Gas

•It occurs at the boiling point of

matter.

•Molecules speed up, move farther

apart, and absorb heat energy.

•Endothermic
 Condensation
• Gas  Liquid

• Molecule slow down, move

closer together and release
heat energy.

• Exothermic
Sublimation
• Solid  Gas

• Molecules speed up,

move farther apart, and
absorb heat energy.

• Endothermic
 Deposition
• Gas  Solid

• Molecules slow down,

move closer together
and release heat
energy.

• Exothermic
Graphing a Phase Change
Melting & Boiling Points

• Melting Point: The temperature at which a solid

changes into a liquid.

• Boiling Point: The temperature at which a liquid

changes into a gas.
Summary