How you measure how much?

You can measure mass,

or volume,
or you can count pieces.
We measure mass in grams.
We measure volume in liters.
We count pieces in MOLES.
For modern systems; 12C is taken as a
standard. So; 12C is assumed to be 12
a.m.u.

1 C = 12 a.m.u.
12

1 a.m.u.=1/12 of the mass of a single 12C atom

=1/12 (12/6.02 X 1023)
=1/6.02 X 1023 grams
=mass of 1 1H atom
Then by comparing the masses of each atom with
the mass of 12C atomic masses of other atoms can
be easily calculated “RELATIVE ATOMIC MASSES”.
Relative atomic masses easily calculated by MASS
SPECTROMETER.
1 16O = 16 a.m.u
1 40Ca = 40a.m.u.
1 1H = 1 a.m.u.
 Moles

Defined as the number of carbon atoms in

exactly 12 grams of carbon-12.
1 mole contains 6.02 x 1023 particles.
Treat it like a very large dozen
6.02 x 1023 is called Avogadro’s number.
 Representative particles

The smallest pieces of a substance.

For a molecular compound it is a molecule.
For an ionic compound it is a formula unit.
For an element it is an atom.
Units of measurement used with equations.
We use a mole concept to bring together the
concepts of counting numbers and atomic
weights of elements.
The mole is derived from the following
information.
Atomic weights are an average of the relative
masses of all of the isotopes of the given
element.
The number of C-12 atoms in exactly 12.00 g
of C-12 is 6.02 X 1023.
This called Avogadro’s number.
An amount of a substance that contains
Avogadro’s number of atoms, ions,
molecules, or any other chemical unit is
called A MOLE.

A mole of C-12 atoms is defined as having a

mass of exactly 12.00 g, a mass that is equal
to its atomic weight.
 Mole Calculations
1 mole (mol):
Amount of matter that contains as many objects
(atoms, molecules) as the number of atoms in
isotopically pure 12C.
6.022 x 1023
Also known as Avogadro’s number.
1 mol 12
C atoms = 6.02 x 1023 12
C atoms

1 mol H2O molecules = 6.02 x 1023 molecules

1 mole NO3- ions = 6.02 x 1023 NO3- ions.

 The mole concept for
(A) elements, (B)
compounds, and (C)
molecular
substances.
 A mole contains
6.02 X 1023 particles.
Since every mole
contains the same
number of particles,
the ratio of the mass
of any two moles is
the same as the ratio
of the masses of
individual particles
making up the two
moles.
 Molar Mass
The atomic mass of any substance expressed in

grams corresponds to 1 mol of the substance.

Atomic mass of a substance expressed in grams is
the molar mass.
The molar mass of a diatomic substance is equal
to twice its atomic mass.
 Molar Mass

The generic term for the mass of one mole.

The same as gram molecular mass, gram
formula mass, and gram atomic mass.
 Gram Atomic Mass

The mass of 1 mole of an element in grams.

12.01 grams of carbon has the same number
of pieces as 1.008 grams of hydrogen and
55.85 grams of iron.
We can right this as
12.01 g C = 1 mole
We can count things by weighing them.
 Mole Calculations
Calculate the number of sodium atoms in 0.120 mol
Na?
0.120 mol Na x 6.02 x 1023 atoms Na = 7.22 x 1022 1
mol Na
 Mole Calculations
Calculate the number of moles of potassium in
1.25 x 1021 atoms of K.

1.25 x 1021 atoms K x 1 mol K = 2.08 x 10-3 mol K

6.02 x 1023 atoms K
 Mole Calculations
What is the mass in grams of 2.01 x 1022 atoms of
sulfur?
2.01 x 1022 atoms S x 1 mol S x 32.07 g S
6.02 x 1023 atoms S 1 mol S
= 1.07g S
 Mole Calculations
How many O2 molecules are present in 0.470g of
oxygen gas?
0.470 g O2 x 1mol O2 x 6.02 x 1023 molecules O2
32.00 g O2 1 mol O2

= 8.84 x 1021 molecules O2

 What about compounds?

In 1 mole of H2O molecules there are two

moles of H atoms and 1 mole of O atoms
To find the mass of one mole of a compound
determine the moles of the elements they have
Find out how much they would weigh add
them up.
Molar Mass
 The Mole
Calculate the number of Magnesium and Chlorine ions
present in 0.450 mol of MgCl2.
# Mg2+ ions:
0.450 mol MgCl2 x 6.02 x 1023 formula units x 1 Mg2+
1
mole 1 formula unit
# Mg2+ ions = 2.71 x 1023
# Cl- ions:
0.450 mol MgCl2 x 6.02 x 1023 formula units x 2 Cl-
1 mole 1 formula unit
# Cl- ions = 5.42 x 1023
 The mole concept applied to
compounds
The formula weight of a species is the sum of

atomic masses (amu) of the atoms in a

species.
Molecular weight of NH3 =

For an ionic cmpd formula weight MgF2 =

 Mass of one mole of MgF2 is
Mass of one formula unit of MgF2 is

Mass of 6.022 x 1023 formula units of MgF2 is

 Gram Formula Mass
The mass of one mole of an ionic compound.
Calculated the same way.
What is the GFM of Fe2O3?
2 moles of Fe x 55.85 g = 111.70 g
3 moles of O x 16.00 g = 48.00 g
The GFM = 111.70 g + 48.00 g = 159.70g
Molar Mass
 What about compounds?
What is the mass of one mole of CH4?
1 mole of C = 12.01 g
4 mole of H x 1.01 g = 4.04g
1 mole CH4 = 12.01 + 4.04 = 16.05g
The Gram Molecular mass of CH4 is 16.05g
The mass of one mole of a molecular
compound.
The gram atomic weight of an element is
the mass in grams of one mole of an
element that is numerically equal to its
atomic weight.

The gram formula weight of a compound

is the mass in grams of one mole of the
compound that is numerically equal to its
formula weight.

The gram formula weight of a compound

is the sum total of all the individual
atomic weight in the formula.
The gram molecular weight is the gram
formula weight of a molecular
compound.
 Molar Mass
Calculate the molar mass of Ag and of
magnesium nitrate, Mg(NO3)2.
Ag is an element so its molar mass equals its
atomic mass = 107.87g/mol.
Mg(NO3)2 = 24.31 + 2(14.01 + 3 x 16.00)
= 148.33 g/mol
 For example
How many moles is 5.69 g of NaOH?
 1 mole 
5.69 g  = 0.142 mol NaOH
 40.00 g 
 need to change grams to moles
 for NaOH
 1mole Na = 22.99g 1 mol O = 16.00 g 1 mole of H = 1.01 g
 1 mole NaOH = 40.00 g
 Mole Calculations
Calculate the mass in grams of a single molecule
of carbon dioxide, CO2.

44.01 g CO2 x 1mol CO2 = 7.31 x 10-23 g/molecule

1 mol CO2 6.02 x 1023 molecules
 Molar Mass

The number of grams of 1 mole of

atoms,ions,or molecules.
We can make conversion factors from these.
To change grams of a compound to moles of a
compound.
 Examples

How many moles is 4.56 g of CO2 ?

How many grams is 9.87 moles of H2O?
How many molecules in 6.8 g of CH4?
49 molecules of C6H12O6 weighs how much?
Calc the molar mass of Ca(NO3)2.

Calc the molar mass of a compound if

0.372 mol of it has a mass of 152g.
How many grams of each are required to have
0.100 mol of
A. NaOH

B. H2SO4

C. C2H5OH

D. Ca3(PO4)2
How many moles are in 50.0 g of
A. CS2

B. Al2(CO3)3

C. Sr(OH)2

D. LiNO3
Calc the no. of C, H, and O atoms in 1.50 g
of glucose (C6H12O6).

What is the average mass of one C3H8

molecule?

What is the mass of 5.00 x 1024 molecules of

NH3?
 Types of questions
How many molecules of CO2 are the in 4.56
moles of CO2 ?
How many moles of water is 5.87 x 1022
molecules?
How many atoms of carbon are there in 1.23
moles of C6H12O6 ?
How many moles is 7.78 x 1024 formula units
of MgCl2?
 Gases
Many of the chemicals we deal with are gases.
They are difficult to weigh.
Need to know how many moles of gas we have.
Two things effect the volume of a gas
Temperature and pressure
Compare at the same temp. and pressure.
 Standard Temperature and
Pressure
0ºC and 1 atm pressure
abbreviated STP
At STP 1 mole of gas occupies 22.4 L
Called the molar volume
Avogadro’s Hypothesis - at the same
temperature and pressure equal volumes
of gas have the same number of particles.
 Molar Volume
Avogadro's Theory: Two gases containing equal
numbers of molecules occupy equal volumes
under similar conditions.

Standard Temperature and Pressure: 0OC and 1

atm.
Molar Volume at STP = 22.4 L
 Examples

What is the volume of 4.59 mole of CO2 gas

at STP?
How many moles is 5.67 L of O2 at STP?
What is the volume of 8.8g of CH4 gas at
STP?
 Molar Volume
Density of gas = molar mass in grams
molar volume in liters
Calculate the density of ammonia gas, NH3, at
STP.
Density of NH3 = molar mass NH3 = 17.04g
molar volume NH3 22.4 L
= 0.761 g/L
 Density of a gas

D = m /V
for a gas the units will be g / L
• We can determine the density of any gas at STP
if we know its formula.
• To find the density we need the mass and the
volume.
If you assume you have 1 mole then the mass is
the molar mass (PT)
At STP the volume is 22.4 L.
 Examples

Find the density of CO2 at STP.

Find the density of CH4 at STP.
 Mass
Volume 22.4 L PT

Moles

23
6.02 x 10
Representative
Atoms Particles Ions
 Mole Calculations
What is the mass of 3.36 L of ozone gas, O3, at STP?
3.36 L O3 x 1 mol O3 x 48.00g O3 = 7.20 g O3
22.4 L O3 1 mol O3
 Mole Calculations
How many molecules of hydrogen gas, H2, occupy
0.500 L at STP?
0.500 L H2 x 1 mol x 6.02 x 1023 molecules H2
22.4 L 1 mol
= 1.34 x 1022 molecules H2
Mole Calculations
 Percent Composition
Percentage Composition: Percentage by mass
contributed by each element in a substance.

% Element (E) = (# atoms of Element)(AW of E) x 100%

Formula Weight of Compound
According to the law of definite composition the
elements in a compound are always present in
the same proportion by mass.
 Percentage composition by mass of a
compound
It shows us how many grams
of each element exist in 100
gram of a compound.
 Percent Composition

Like all percents

Part x 100 %
whole
Find the mass of each component,
divide by the total mass.
 Percent Composition
Calculate the percentage of Nitrogen, by mass in
Ca(NO3)2:

Formula Weight = 1 x Ca + 2 x N + 6 x O
= 1 x 40.1 + 2 x 14.0 + 6 x 16.0
= 164.1 amu

% N = (2)(14.0) = 17.1%
164.1
 Percent Composition
Calculate the percent composition of
trinitrotoluene (TNT), C7H5(NO2)3.

Assume that there is 1 mol of TNT.

1 mol of TNT contains:
7 mol carbon atoms = 84.07 g
5 mol hydrogen atoms = 5.05 g
3 mol of nitrogen atoms = 42.03 g
6 mol oxygen atoms = 96.00 g
 Percent Composition
Calculate the molar mass of TNT:
Molar mass = 227.15 g/mol.
Compare the mass of each element to the molar mass
of the compound:
84.07 g C x 100 = 37.01% C
227.15 g C7H5(NO2)3
Percent Composition
5.05g H x 100 = 2.22% H
227.15 g C7H5(NO2)3

42.03 g N x 100 = 18.50% N

227.15 g C7H5(NO2)3

96.00 g 0 x 100 = 42.26% O

227.15 g C7H5(NO2)3
 Empirical Formula
Empirical formula gives:
the ratio of atoms in a molecule: H2O.
the ratio of moles of atoms on the molar level.
The molar ratio of the elements in a compound
allows the calculation of the subscripts in the
empirical formula of a compound.
 Empirical Formula

Percent composition - the mass percent of each

element present in a compound.
1. Calculate the chemical formula from percent
composition.
2.Find the relative numbers of moles of each
element in the compound.
3.Use molar masses of the elements as
conversion factors.
 Empirical Formula
Find the ratio of the numbers of moles by
dividing the larger number of moles by the
smaller number.
Multiply the subscripts by small integers in
a trial-and-error procedure until whole
numbers are found. 
Empirical Formula
• The flow diagram
summarizes the
• relationship among
mass percent, moles,
mole ratios and
subscripts in the formula
of a compound used in
the determination of
empirical formula from
percent composition.
 Calculating Empirical
Just find the lowest whole number ratio
C6H12O6

CH2O
It is not just the ratio of atoms, it is also the ratio
of moles of atoms.
In 1 mole of CO2 there is 1 mole of carbon and 2
moles of oxygen.
In one molecule of CO2 there is 1 atom of C and
 Calculating Empirical

Means we can get ratio from percent composition.

Assume you have a 100 g.
The percentages become grams.
Can turn grams to moles.
Find lowest whole number ratio by dividing by
the smallest.
 Example
Calculate the empirical formula of a compound
composed of 38.67 % C, 16.22 % H, and 45.11
%N.
Assume 100 g so
38.67 g C x 1mol C = 3.220 mole C
12.01 gC
16.22 g H x 1mol H = 16.09 mole H
1.01 gH
45.11 g N x 1mol N = 3.219 mole N
14.01 gN
 Example
The ratio is 3.220 mol C = 1 mol C
3.219 mol N 1 mol N
The ratio is 16.09 mol H = 5 mol H
3.219 mol N 1 mol N
C1H5N1
• A compound is 43.64 % P and 56.36 % O.
What is the empirical formula?
• Caffeine is 49.48% C, 5.15% H, 28.87% N and
16.49% O. What is its empirical formula?
 Empirical Formula
Q. The percent composition of a solid is known to
be 68.4% Ba, 10.3% P, and 21.3% O. What is
the empirical formula of the compound?

A. Assuming a 100 g sample gives us 68.4 g Ba,

10.3 g P, and 21.3 g O.
Convert these masses to numbers of moles: 0.498
moles Ba, 0.332 mol P, 1.33 mol O
 Empirical Formula
Knowing the relative numbers of moles, find the
ratio by dividing the two larger numbers by the
smaller number. Answer = 1.5
The O:Ba:P ratio of 4:1.5:1 gives an empirical
formula of Ba1.5PO4. However, we must multiply
the subscripts by a small integer (in this case 2) to
find whole numbers for the formula. Ba3P2O8, or
Ba3(PO4)2.
 Empirical Formula
Q. What is the percent composition of sodium
hydrogen carbonate?

A. The formula for sodium hydrogen carbonate is

NaHCO3. The Na:H:C:O mole ratio is 1:1:1:3.
Convert this mole ratio into a mass ratio by
assuming there is a 1 mole sample present. Answer =
23g Na, 1.0g H, 12g C, 48 g O
 Empirical Formula
To determine the percent composition, divide the
mass of each element present by the total mass of the
compound and multiply by 100.
Total mass of 1 mole of NaHCO3 = 84 g
Answer = 27% Na, 1.2% H, 14% C, 57% O
 Empirical Formula
0.500 g of scandium was heated and allowed to react
with oxygen. The resulting product oxide had a mass
of 0.767g. What is the empirical formula for
scandium oxide?
Calculate the number of moles of scandium:
0.500 g Sc x 1 mol Sc = 0.0111 mol Sc
44.96 g Sc
 Empirical Formula
Calculate the moles of oxygen:
Mass of oxygen = 0.767g– 0.500g O = 0.267 g O
Number of moles of oxygen:
0.267g x 1 mol 0 = 0.0167 mol O
16.00 g
Mole ratio of Sc:O is 0.0111:0.0167
Divide by smallest number: 1:1.50
 Empirical Formula
Sc1.00O1.50
Using the law of multiple proportions we need a
whole number ratio:
Sc2.00O3.00
 Empirical Formula
Calculate the empirical formula of glycine given
that it contains 32.0% carbon, 6.7% hydrogen,
18.7% nitrogen and 42.6% oxygen.

Assume a 100g sample. Then the percent

composition equals number of grams.
 Empirical Formula
32.0 g C, 6.7g H, 18.7g N, 42.6g O.
Convert grams into moles:
32.0 g C x 1 mol = 2.66 mol C
12.01 g C
6.7 g H x 1 mol H = 6.6 mol H
1.01 g H
 Empirical Formula
18.7 g N x 1 mol N = 1.33 mol
14.01 g N
42.6 g O x 1 mol O = 2.66 mol O
16.00 g O
Divide the mole ratios by the smallest number: 1.33
C2H5N1O2
 The Empirical Formula

The lowest whole number ratio of elements in a

compound.
The molecular formula the actual ration of elements
in a compound.
The two can be the same.
CH2 empirical formula
C2H4 molecular formula
C3H6 molecular formula
H2O both
 Molecular Formula
The formula obtained from percentage
compositions is always the empirical formula.
Molecular formula - gives the actual numbers of
atoms in a molecule.
1. May be the same as the empirical formula.
2. May be a multiple of the empirical formula.
a. Multiple = Molecular mass
Empirical Formula
 Empirical to molecular

Since the empirical formula is the lowest

ratio the actual molecule would weigh
more.
By a whole number multiple.
Divide the actual molar mass by the the
mass of one mole of the empirical
formula.
 Molecular Formula
The empirical formula for fructose is CH2O. If
the molar mass of fructose is 180 g/mol, what is
the molecular formula?
Molar mass of the empirical formula = 30 g/mol.
 Molecular Formula
Multiple = molar mass of fructose
molar mass of empirical formula
Multiple = 180 g/mol = 6
30 g/mol
Multiply the empirical formula by 6:
C6H12O6
 Molecular Formula
Q. Determine the molecular formula of ethyl butyrate.
The molecular mass of the compound is 116 g/mol and
the empirical formula is C3H6O.
A. The molecular formula of the compound may be the
same as the empirical formula or it may be a multiple of
the empirical formula.
For ethyl butyrate: Multiple = 116 =2
58
The subscripts in the empirical formula are
multiplied by 2 giving a molecular formula of C6H12O2.
 Some problems
How many atoms are there in 5.10 moles of
sulfur? What’s the mass of 5.10 moles of S?

How many moles of calcium atoms are in

1.16 x 1024 atoms of Ca? How many grams?
Which of the following has more atoms:
1.10g of hydrogen atoms or 14.7 g of
chromium atoms?

How many moles are in 0.040 kg Na?

 Example

A compound is known to be composed of

71.65 % Cl, 24.27% C and 4.07% H. Its
molar mass is known (from gas density) is
known to be 98.96 g. What is its molecular
formula?
 STRUCTURAL FORMULA
The atoms in a molecule are connected or
chemically bonded in a precise way. A SF.
Shows how the atoms in a molecule are
arranged.
For ex: H2O H-O-H
C2H6 CH3 H-C- C- H
H H
 Empirical formula
•The simplest whole number ratio of atoms
of elements in a compound, described with
the use of subscripts.
•Ionic compounds are always shown as
empirical formulas.
Molecular Formula
The actual numbers of atoms in a molecule.
Structural Formula
Show the relative arrangements of atoms
in a molecule
•If you know the name of an ingredient, you can write a chemical formula, and
the percent composition of a particular substance can be calculated from the
formula. This can be useful information for consumer decisions.
 HYDRATES
Solids which are found in combined
form with water in definite
proportion are called as HYDRATES.
When hydrates are heated, H2O
evaporates, and only solid is
obtained in amorphous .
(w/o a certain geometric structure,
generally in powdered form. H2O
molecules surround ionic substances
with certain amounts.
WATER OF HYDRATION : Water molecules of a
hydrate.

 Na2CO3.10H2O Na2CO3(s) + 10H2O(g)

 DEHYDRATION: Evaporation of water of hydration.

 Na2CO3.10H2O,
 CaSO4.2H2O,
 CuSO4.5H2O