Switching

A switched network consists of a series of interlinked nodes, called switches.

Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections between two or
more devices linked to the switch. In a switched network, some of these nodes
are connected to the end systems (computers or telephones, for example). Others
are used only for routing.

The end systems (communicating devices) are labeled A, B, C, D, and so on,

and the switches are labeled I, II, III, IV, and V. Each switch is connected to
multiple links.
Three methods of switching have been important:
circuit switching, packet switching, and message switching.
We can then divide today's networks into three broad categories:
circuit-switched networks, packet-switched networks, and message-switched.
Packet-switched networks can further be divided into two subcategories-
virtual-circuit networks and datagram networks.
 CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS
• A circuit-switched network consists of a set of switches connected by
physical links.
• A connection between two stations is a dedicated path made of one or
more links. However, each connection uses only one dedicated channel on
each link. Each link is normally divided into n channels by using FDM or
TDM
• Circuit-switched network with four switches and four links. Each link is
divided into n (n is 3 in the figure) channels by using FDM or TDM.
Circuit switching takes place at
the physical layer.
In circuit switching, the
resources need to be reserved
during the setup phase; the
resources remain dedicated for
the entire duration of data
transfer until the teardown
phase.
Three Phases
The actual communication in a circuit-switched network requires
three phases: connection setup, data transfer, and connection
teardown.
Setup Phase:
Before the two parties (or multiple parties in a conference call)
can communicate, a dedicated circuit (combination of
channels in links) needs to be established. The end systems are
normally connected through dedicated lines to the switches, so
connection setup means creating dedicated channels between
the switches.
when system A needs to connect to system M, it sends a setup
request that includes the address of system M, to switch I.
Switch I finds a channel between itself and switch IV that can
be dedicated for this purpose. Switch I then sends the request
to switch IV, which finds a dedicated channel between itself
and switch III. Switch III informs system M of system A's
intention at this time.
In the next step to making a connection, an acknowledgment from system M
needs to be sent in the opposite direction to system A. Only after system A
receives this acknowledgment is the connection established.
Note that end-to-end addressing is required for creating a connection between
the two end systems. These can be, for example, the addresses of the
computers assigned by the administrator in a TDM network, or telephone
numbers in an FDM network.
Data Transfer Phase:
After the establishment of the dedicated circuit (channels), the two parties can
transfer data.
Teardown Phase:
When one of the parties needs to disconnect, a signal is sent to each switch to
release the resources.
Efficiency
circuit-switched networks are not as efficient as the other two types of networks
because resources are allocated during the entire duration of the connection.
These resources are unavailable to other connections.
In a telephone network, people normally terminate the communication when they
have finished their conversation. However, in computer networks, a computer
can be connected to another computer even if there is no activity for a long
time.
Delay
Circuit-switched network normally has low efficiency, the delay in this type of
network is minimal. During data transfer the data are not delayed at each
switch; the resources are allocated for the duration of the connection.

The total delay is due to the

time needed to create the
connection, transfer data,
and disconnect the circuit.
The delay caused by the setup is the sum of four parts:
The propagation time of the source computer request (slope of
the first gray box),
The request signal transfer time (height of the first gray box),
The propagation time of the acknowledgment from the
destination computer (slope of the second gray box),
and the signal transfer time of the acknowledgment (height of the
second gray box).

The delay due to data transfer is the sum of two parts:

The propagation time (slope of the colored box) and data transfer
time (height of the colored box), which can be very long.
The third box shows the time needed to tear down the circuit.
We have shown the case in which the receiver requests
disconnection, which creates the maximum delay.
 DATAGRAM NETWORKS

In data communications, we need to send messages from one end system to

another. If the message is going to pass through a packet-switched
network, it needs to be divided into packets of fixed or variable size. The
size of the packet is determined by the network and the governing protocol.
In a packet-switched network, there is no resource reservation; resources are
allocated on demand.
Datagram switching is normally done at the network layer.
A datagram network with four switches (routers)
The datagram networks are sometimes referred to as connectionless networks.
The term connectionless here means that the switch (packet switch) does
not keep information about the connection state. There are no setup or
teardown phases. Each packet is treated the same by a switch regardless of
its source or destination.

Routing Table

If there are no setup or teardown phases, how are the packets routed to their
destinations in a datagram network?
In this type of network, each switch (or packet switch) has a routing table
which is based on the destination address. The routing tables are dynamic
and are updated periodically. The destination addresses and the
corresponding forwarding output ports are recorded in the tables. This is
different from the table of a circuit switched network in which each entry
is created when the setup phase is completed and deleted when the
teardown phase is over.
Routing table in a datagram network

A switch in a datagram network uses a routing table

that is based on the destination address.

Destination Address: The destination address in the

header of a packet in a datagram network remains the
same during the entire journey of the packet.

Efficiency
The efficiency of a datagram network is better than that
of a circuit-switched network; resources are allocated
only when there are packets to be transferred.

Delay
There may be greater delay in a datagram network than
in a virtual-circuit network.
Although there are no setup and teardown phases, each
packet may experience a wait at a
switch before it is forwarded.
The packet travels through two switches. There are three transmission times
(3T), three propagation delays (slopes 3't of the lines), and two waiting times
(WI + w2)' We ignore the processing time in each switch.
The total delay is
Total delay =3T + 3t + WI + W2
Switching in the Internet is done by using the datagram approach to packet
switching at the network layer.
 VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS
A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched network and a
datagram network. It has some characteristics of both.

1. As in a circuit-switched network, there are setup and teardown phases in

addition to the data transfer phase.
2. Resources can be allocated during the setup phase, as in a circuit-switched
network, or on demand, as in a datagram network.
3. As in a datagram network, data are packetized and each packet carries an
address in the header. However, the address in the header has local
jurisdiction (it defines what should be the next switch and the channel on
which the packet is being canied), not end-to-end jurisdiction.
4. As in a circuit-switched network, all packets follow the same path
established during the connection.
5. A virtual-circuit network is normally implemented in the data link layer,
while a circuit-switched network is implemented in the physical layer and
a datagram network in the network layer.

The network has switches that allow traffic from sources to destinations. A
source or destination can be a computer, packet switch, bridge, or any
other device that connects other networks.
Virtual-circuit network

Addressing
In a virtual-circuit network, two types of addressing are involved: global and
local (virtual-circuit identifier).
Global Addressing
A source or a destination needs to have a global address-an address that can be
unique in the scope of the network or internationally if the network is part of an
international network.
Virtual-Circuit Identifier
The identifier that is actually used for data transfer is called the virtual-circuit
identifier (VCI). A VCI, unlike a global address, is a small number that has
only switch scope; it is used by a frame between two switches. When a frame
arrives at a switch, it has a VCI; when it leaves, it has a different VCl.
Virtual-circuit identifier
VCI in a data frame changes from one
switch to another. Note that a VCI does
not need to be a large number since
each switch can use its own unique set
of VCls.

Three Phases

As in a circuit-switched network, a source and destination need to go through

three phases in a virtual-circuit network:
setup, data transfer, and teardown.

In the setup phase, the source and destination use their global addresses to help
switches make table entries for the connection.

In the teardown phase, the source and destination inform the switches to delete
the corresponding entry.

Data transfer occurs between these two phases.

Data Transfer Phase
To transfer a frame from a source to its destination, all switches need to have a
table entry for this virtual circuit. The table, in its simplest form, has four
columns. This means that the switch holds four pieces of information for
each virtual circuit that is already set up.
Switch and tables in a virtual-circuit network

frame arriving at port 1 with a VCI of

14. When the frame arrives, the switch
looks in its table to find port 1 and a
VCI of 14. When it is found, the switch
knows to change the VCI to 22 and
send out the frame from port 3.
Source-to-destination data transfer in a virtual-circuit network

how a frame from source A reaches destination B and how its VCI changes during
the trip. Each switch changes the VCI and routes the frame.
The data transfer phase is active until the source sends all its frames to the
destination. The procedure at the switch is the same for each frame of a message.
The process creates a virtual circuit, not a real circuit, between the source and
destination.
 TELEPHONE NETWORK
• Telephone networks use circuit switching.
• The telephone network had its beginnings in the late 1800s. The entire
network, which is referred to as the plain old telephone system (POTS),
was originally an analog system using analog signals to transmit voice.
• The network, in the 1980s, began to carry data in addition to voice. The
telephone network has undergone many technical changes. The network is
now digital as well as analog.
Major Components

Local loop

Trunk Trunk

End Tandem
•

offices offices Regional offices

Three major components:

local loops, trunks, and switching offices. The telephone network has several
levels of switching offices such as end offices, tandem offices, and regional
offices.
Local Loops
A twisted-pair cable that connects the subscriber telephone to the nearest end
office or local central office. The local loop, when used for voice, has a
bandwidth of 4000 Hz (4 kHz).
The first three digits of a local telephone number define the office, and the
next four digits define the local loop number.

Trunks
Trunks are transmission media that handle the communication between
offices. A trunk normally handles hundreds or thousands of connections
through multiplexing. Transmission is usually through optical fibers or
satellite links.

Switching Offices
To avoid having a permanent physical link between any two subscribers, the
telephone company has switches located in a switching office. A switch
connects several local loops or trunks and allows a connection between
different subscribers.
LATAs
United States was divided into more than 200 local-access transport areas
(LATAs).
A LATA can be a small or large metropolitan area.
A small state may have one single LATA; a large state may have several
LATAs.
A LATA boundary may overlap the boundary of a state; part of a LATA can
be in one state, part in another state.
Intra-LATA Services
The services offered by the common carriers (telephone companies) inside a
LATA are called intra-LATA services. The carrier that handles these
services is called a local exchange carrier (LEC).
The carrier that provided services before 1996 owns the cabling system (local
loops) and is called the incumbent local exchange carrier (ILEC). The new
carriers that can provide services are called competitive local exchange
carriers (CLECs).
Communication inside a LATA is handled by end switches and tandem
switches. A call that can be completed by using only end offices is considered
toll-free. A call that has to go through a tandem office (intra-LATA toll office)
is charged.
Inter-LATA Services
The services between LATAs are handled by interexchange carriers (IXCs).
These carriers, sometimes called long-distance companies, provide
communication services between two customers in different LATAs. After
the act of 1996 these services can be provided by any carrier, including
those involved in intra-LATA services. Carriers providing inter-LATA
services include AT&T, MCI, WorldCom, Sprint, and Verizon.
The IXCs are long-distance carriers that provide general data communications
services including telephone service. A telephone call going through an
IXC is normally digitized, with the carriers using several types of networks
to provide service.