Advancements in Electrochemical

Micromachining (EMM)

Vyom Sharma1 & Dr. J. Ramkumar2

1: Research Scholar, 2: Professor

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur
 Organization of the presentation

1. Introduction to Electrochemical machining (ECM)

(Applications, Principle, Significance, Variants and Hybridizations)

2. Introduction to Wire electrochemical machining (WECM)

(Principle, Ishikawa diagram, Applications, WECM electrolytes

and comparison with wire electric discharge machining process)

3. Recent advancements in Electrochemical Micromachining

4. Ongoing work at Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

5. Concluding remarks

References

2 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

Introduction to Electrochemical Machining (Applications)

Microstructures
Stator Helix Tube Turbine Blade
Application in machining process
Application for pumps and high Application in aircraft engines and gas
for diaper products
pressure liquid mixers turbine

Turbocharger Micro Reactor Internal Cooling Ribs

Application in cars and trucks Application in Heat Exchanger Application in whisper power
generators in boat engines
3 Image source: electrochemicalmachining.com
 Applications of Electrochemical micromachining (EMM)

Biomedical Micro
fluidics
Markings
and
Aesthetics

4 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

 Biomedical applications
Titanium dental implant micropatterning

Using electrochemical
micromachining, 1,12,000 close
packed hemispherical cavities (dia.
25 μm) are created between threads of
titanium dental implant in order to
impart micro/nano scale roughness.

5 Image source: micropat.ch Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

 Biomedical applications
Titanium and Tantalum anodic oxidation

It is possible to increase the thickness of the naturally

protective oxide film present on the surface of valve metals
such as tantalum, titanium and its alloys using ECM. Oxide
film thickness can then range from 10 nm to more than 250
nm. This can be of practical interest for the quick
recognition of different medical devices in operating
theatres.

6 Image source: micropat.ch Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

 Micro fluidics
Micro fluidic circuit on stainless steel

Micro fluidic circuit on stainless

steel. Figure shows high density
micro channels of width 60 μm and
depth 25 μm. Smooth transition
between different sections can be
achieved using electrochemical
micromachining.

7 Image source: micropat.ch Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

Functional properties of textured surfaces and applications domain

Domain Function Applications

Optics Reflectivity, diffraction, Wavelength specific mirrors,

Polarization, light absorption reflective road signs, Fresnel
lens

Tribology Friction of coefficient, Brake disc, bearings

lubrication

Google images
Surface Wetting, adhesion, capillary, Super hydrophobic, paint
Engineering Surface energy adhesion, Velcro, Anti fouling

Hydrodynamics Passive mixing, Microfluidics applications, golf

Drag reduction balls
(Aerodynamics)

Thermodynamics Heat Transfer Heat sink, spray mechanism

8
Wettability

θc > 110°
Hydrophobic • Low surface energy
surface • High contact angle

θc < 65° Hydrophilic • High surface energy

surface • Low contact angle

Hydrophobic surface Metallic surface:

Surface energies is high ;
Contact angle < 65°;
Hydrophilic surface

Relation of surface energy

and contact angle

9
 Super hydrophobicity

Super hydrophobicity is an effect where roughness and hydrophobicity combine to generate unusually
hydrophobic surfaces, causing water to bounce and roll off as if it were mercury and is used by plants and animals
to repel water, stay clean and sometimes even to breathe underwater. The effect is also known as The Lotus Effect
and Ultra hydrophobicity.

10
 Application in enhancing heat transfer rate
Enhancement of thin film evaporation heat transfer in micro channel flow boiling

11
 Electrochemical Finishing

Knife edge “as received” (5.6 mm

wide 0.5 mm thick) (left) and after
electrically controlled finishing (ECF)
(right)

Electrochemical micro finishing can be successfully utilized to remove micro burrs from the cutting edge
of surgical blades. Each blade is 5.6 mm wide and 0.5 mm thick. The process uses a very simple fixture
for micro burr removal. The total processing time required for complete burr removal is 2 s.

12 Image source: micropat.ch Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

 Significance of Electrochemical machining (ECM)

Most Advance machining processes are thermal

oriented, e.g. EDM, LBM, EBM.
• Cause thermal distortion micro features
• Melting of micro features
• Change in mechanical properties
• Chemical machining cannot be applied to
machine chemically resistant materials

Change in mechanical properties

 MRR in ECM is very high; applicable for Large area Texturing

 No mechanical contact
 Very low heat generation
 Metal removal takes place at atomic/ molecular level

13 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

 Introduction to Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

Principle

Electrochemistry
Faradays
Overpotential
Laws

Electric
Concept of
double layer
Polarization
(EDL)
Pourbaix
diagram

1 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

Principle of Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

When the conducting electrodes are placed in conducting fluids, and electric current is passed
through them ions are transferred between the electrodes and electrolyte. This leads to the
occurrence of physical change at the electrodes.
Reactions at Anode:

Reactions at Cathode:

15
 Principle of Electrochemical Machining
 When the electric potential is applied across the anode and cathode, the quantitative
relationship between the material removed and the charge passed is given by faraday’s
laws of electrolysis. The mathematical expression is given as:

grams.

Where, Q is the total electric charge passed through the substance, F is faraday’s
constant(96500 C), A= atomic mass of the substance and Z is valence number of ions of
the substance

16 Image source: indec-ecm.com Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

 Different components of ECM machine

17 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

S.N. Types of ECM Description Illustration

1. Through-mask *Micro-machined mask is prepared and adhered on the

electrochemical target surface and allowed for anodic dissolution to generate
machining (TMECM) micro-features.
* Micro dimple array, micro cavities can be generated
economically

2. Jet electrochemical *Negatively charged stream of electrolyte is impinged from a

machining (Mask less) glass tube nozzle on positively charged work piece, hence
electrolysis occurs and anodic dissolution takes place.
*Micro dimple array, micro holes inside a hole can be
manufactured.

3. Wire electrochemical *Instead of micro-tools cheap micro-wires are made

machining (Mask less) negative and electrolyte is supplied axially to complete the
circuit of electrolytic cell.
*Micro-features with high aspect ratio can be generated

Laser assisted jet * Hybridized jet ECM with the help of laser to localise the
4. anodic dissolution to a specific area to enhance the
electrochemical
productivity and precision.
machining (Mask less) * Micro-hole drilling

18
 Principle of Electrochemical Machining
Variables affecting the rate of electrode reaction

19 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

Principle of Electrochemical Machining

Polarization Curve
Polarization curves represent the relationship between Curve 1 Occurrence of etching where metal
anode potential and current density and provide dissolves rapidly and results in uneven surface
important information about the electrochemical generation.
characteristics of metal dissolution in ECM process.
Curve 2 Condition of polishing.
Zone A: Etching occurs.
Zone B: Polished finish
(formation of anodic film at high current density)
Zone C: Polishing with etching
(Evolution of gas at anode ruptures the anodic film)

Curve 3 Passivation phenomenon.

Zone D: Passive oxide layer
Lowers the dissolution rate at anode.
If potential increases further, trans-passive
phenomenon occurs and passive film breaks down
and dissolution becomes uniform, leading to smooth
surface.

20
 Principle of Electrochemical Machining
Pourbaix diagram
The relation between pH of the solution and electrode potential can be represented by a phase
diagram known as Pourbaix diagram.
If a metal is made anodic in an aqueous solution, several reactions may occur depending upon
the change in free energy.

------ line (1)

------- line (2)

------ line (3)

------ line (4)

------- line (5)

------- line (6)

-------- line (7)

21 Image source: Bijoy Bhattacharyya, Electrochemical Micromachining for Nanofabrication, MEMS and Nanotechnology
 Principle of Electrochemical Machining
Pourbaix diagram
Important in ECM/EMM
Pourbaix diagram can help in identifying zone of passivity for a given working conditions
which can be helpful for ECM to control the surface film of passive oxide layer by taking
suitable actions.

Pourbaix diagram of Titanium-water system

22
 Principle of Electrochemical Machining
Electrical Double Layer
 All substances intrinsically carry a negative surface
charge once they are dispersed in water. This is
caused by high dielectric constant of water.
 Water carry ions of dissolved salts. Water molecules
form a layer on the surface of immersed electrode.
 Anhydrous cations in the solution displace the water
molecules from the surface of electrode and gets
adsorbed. They are called specifically adsorbed
cations.
 Hydrated cations do not displace water molecules
from the surface and sits on the top of water
molecules. They are simply called adsorbed cations.
 Two planes are usually associated with the double
layer. The first one, the inner Helmholtz plane (IHP),
passes through the centres of specifically adsorbed
ions.
 The second plane is called the outer Helmholtz plane
(OHP) and passes through the centres of the
hydrated ions that are in contact with the metal
surface.
23 Image source: web.nmsu.edu Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur
 Different models of Electric Double Layer(EDL)

Helmholtz Stern
Model Gouy - Chapman Model
Model

  First to propose the concept of

EDL. Proposition:
  Stern
  combined Helmholtz model
Proposition: Interactions between ions and and Gouy-Chapman model
Ions are strongly adsorbed to the electrode are purely electrostatic
electrode surface and form compact (i.e., no specific adsorption). Proposition:
layer. Helmholtz double layer thickness is
Distribution of ions from electrode followed by diffuse layer thickness
The structure of double layer is similar surface to bulk solution is in in electrolyte solution.
to the dielectric capacitor, two planar exponential order, called as diffuse
electrodes at different charges and layer. This layer extend to some
separated by distance H distance from the solid surface
(exponentially)
= Dielectric constant
H = Helmholtz double layer thickness
(Radius of solvated ions, 2-5 Å) = Debye length of diffuse layer
= Electric potential at electrode surface
24
 Principle of Electrochemical Machining
Over potential
Over potential, a measure of extent of polarization, is the deviation of electrode potential from
its equilibrium value which is required for a given current density to flow through the
electrode. Different types of overpotentials are:

25 Image source: Bijoy Bhattacharyya, Electrochemical Micromachining for Nanofabrication, MEMS and Nanotechnology
 Principle of Electrochemical Machining
Over potential
Activation Overpotential:
 In the no current flowing condition the electrochemical changes occurring at an electrode are in equilibrium.
 The electrode potential between the interface of the electrode and the electrolyte acts as an obstacle to
increase the rate of reaction.
 Additional energy must be supplied to activate the ions discharged at the required rate to promote flow of
current.
 When this activation energy of the charge transfer reaction is high, an overpotential is needed to drive the
reaction in the desirable direction (i.e., electrode must ionize at a greater rate than that of discharge of its ion)
with an appreciable rate. It is called activation overpotential (ɳ ac).
Concentration Overpotential:
 Ions migrate toward the electrode surface and form a layer of concentrated ions which acts as concentration
barrier.
 Each ion has to pass through this concentration barrier to release its charge at the electrode surface and
newly formed ions have to pass through this barrier into the bulk electrolyte.
 The extra potential required for the movement of the ion through this concentration layer is known as
concentration overpotential.

26 Image source: Bijoy Bhattacharyya, Electrochemical Micromachining for Nanofabrication, MEMS and Nanotechnology
 Principle of Electrochemical Machining
Over potential
Ohmic Overpotential:
 Films of solid material such as oxide layer forming on the electrode surface offer resistance to the passage of
current.
 Resistance overpotential is generally regarded as the potential drop across this thin layer on the electrode
surface. The film of metal hydroxides that deposited on cathode (tool) surface during ECM may also restrict
electrolyte passage for the migration of ions and make the path more restrictive.
 Oxide film at the anode (workpiece) surface will also offer resistance and sometimes it prevents ions from
reaching the anode surface creating passivation.
 The magnitude of resistance depends principally on the current flowing in the cell and on the nature and
conductivity of the electrolyte and electrode material.

27 Image source: Bijoy Bhattacharyya, Electrochemical Micromachining for Nanofabrication, MEMS and Nanotechnology
 Factors influencing Electrochemical micromachining

EMM
Interelectrode Sparking
gap

Double layer Electrolyte

capacitance boiling

Warburg
Impedance Passivation

Charge transfer Cavitation

Flushing of
resistance
sludge and
gas bubbles
28
 Factors influencing Electrochemical micromachining (EMM)
Interelectrode gap:
 It has been observed that the machining accuracy improves when the IEG is kept at lower range maybe at 5–15
mm. It is one of the most challenging tasks to maintain as well as to control this narrow range of IEG in EMM.
 Various electrochemical phenomena occur in the IEG during anodic dissolution. Evolutions of the metal ions
from the anodic workpiece, electrochemical reactions in the bulk electrolyte, and generation of gas bubbles at the
cathodic microtool will influence the micromachining efficiency.
 Any micro or nano range of variation of all these factors may cause major changes in the micromachining
characteristics.
 In the case of stagnant electrolyte across the IEG, which is most preferable during micromachining, these
variations of electrochemical factors may pose acute difficulties.
Double layer capacitance:
 During EMM, the range of machining current is of the order of milliampere and for continuation of machining
initially the double layer has to be charged, which consumes some amount of current.
 Hence, some portion of the total machining current during pulse on time is not available for anodic dissolution.
 Thus, for EMM, total machining current as well as effective machining time are reduced due to charging and
discharging of the double layer.

29 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

 Strategy to control Interelectrode Gap in ECM

30 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

 Factors influencing Electrochemical micromachining (EMM)
Warburg Impedance:
 There is no electrolyte flow in EMM operation and hence, there is not sufficient transfer of mass from one
electrode to the other electrode due to movement of ions by natural convection caused by the density gradient
and forced convection caused by hydrodynamic transport.
 These result in the formation of a diffusion layer, which must be crossed by the fresh ions to complete the
electrode reaction kinetics. This component of diffusion creates impedance, known as the Warburg impedance.
 Like resistance, impedance is a measure of the ability of a circuit to resist the flow of electrical current.
 In the context of EMM, the diffusion layer thickness at the anode may be more compared to that in conventional
ECM due to absence of high flow rate of the electrolyte. Hence the effect of Warburg impedance is more
prominent during anodic dissolution in the microscopic domain.
Charge transfer resistance:
 Whenever a metal is dipped in electrolyte, the metal molecules can dissolve into the electrolyte.
 In the forward reaction, electrons enter the metal and metal ions diffuse into the electrolyte. This is called charge
transfer.
 For the dissolution of anodic metal the reaction must be in the forward direction only i.e., irreversible. The
resistance involved in irreversible reaction is called charge transfer resistance.

31 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

 Factors influencing Electrochemical micromachining (EMM)
Charge transfer resistance:
 In case of EMM, the normal value of applied pulsed potential across the electrodes, which maintain a narrow gap,
is much less and current is in the order of microampere.
 Pulse frequency is very large, i.e., in the order of megahertz, which minimizes the machining cycle time.
 During this very small cycle time as well as due to the stagnant nature of electrolyte, it is difficult to overcome the
charge transfer resistance, which may lead to deposition of metal ions or sludges on the surface of the microtool
or workpiece.

Flushing of sludge and gas bubbles:

 In the case of micro-ECM, the presence of small amount of sludge and gas bubbles in the narrow IEG creates lot of
disturbance.
 The sizes of the tool and workpiece are usually in the micrometre range, which may vibrate and disturb the
controlled dissolution mechanism, if a flowing electrolyte is utilized.
 Due to the stagnant nature of electrolyte and existence of very small machining gap, precipitates as well as
deposition may form on the surface of the electrodes, i.e., microtool and workpiece.

32 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

 Factors influencing Electrochemical micromachining (EMM)
Cavitation:
 The temperature of the electrolyte across the IEG increases due to flow of high current, which leads to increase in
pressure.
 Bubbles are swept by the flow to the higher pressure region in the machining gap.
 Increase in pressure may collapse these bubbles, which further drops the pressure in the confined zone of
machining, leading to formation of cavity. This phenomenon is known as cavitation.
 The presence of cavitation effect within the machining gap may cause machining to be terminated, since the
bubbles form a nonconducting region that restricts the flow of machining current in the gap, which leads to
uncontrolled machining.
 Hence cavitation results in very rough, striated finish in ECM.

Passivation:

 During anodic dissolution, depending on the metal and electrolyte combination there is rapid formation of oxide
film firmly attached to the metal and this acts as a barrier between the surface of the anode and electrolyte.
 The oxide film is of low ionic conductivity, which reduces the anodic dissolution. Sometimes this passivation
phenomenon can cause the machining to stop.
 Suitable electrolyte as well as appropriate combination of power parameters may reduce the chances of
passivation during anodic dissolution in microscopic domain.

33 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

 Factors influencing Electrochemical micromachining (EMM)
Electrolyte boiling:

 Due to Joule heating, temperature of the electrolyte in the IEG may rise. Temperature of the electrolyte may reach
the boiling point if large amount of current is needed for machining and the flow of electrolyte is not sufficient.
 With the onset of boiling, availability of the electrolyte in the gap may be reduced due to formation of vapours
bubbles, which may lead to violent fluctuations in the cell current causing uneven machining.
 In case of micro-ECM, amount of current is small, however, due to the smaller size of the microtool; the current
density may be comparatively higher, which may lead to electrolyte boiling.
 The chances of formation of vapor bubbles in the narrow IEG may increase due to the stagnant nature of
electrolyte in micro-ECM.

Sparking:
 Formation of gas and vapor bubbles may lead to creation of gas blanket over electrodes which leads to
generation of electrical sparking between electrodes.
 The nature of machining can also be deteriorated by sparking. In case of micro-ECM, even micro sparking may
damage the tool and cause several associated disturbances during operation.
 Here the gap is very small and electrolyte is stagnant in nature, which increases the chances of frequent
occurrence of micro sparking.

34 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

 EMM/Wire-EMM Electrolytes
 The Electrolyte not only completes the electric circuit between the tool and workpiece, but also allows the
desired machining reactions to occur.
 Generally anodic films are allowed to form on workpiece surface which helps to achieve anodic smoothing,
finally sometimes it may cause for short circuiting during WECM operation due to smaller IEG.
 The electrolyte carries away the heat and reaction products from the zone of machining.
 Recirculation is avoided to reduce the possibility of micro tool damage.

Passivating • Contains oxidizing agent i.e. sodium nitrate, sodium chlorate

electrolyte • Are known to give better machining precision

Non-passivating • Contains relatively aggressive anions such as chlorine ions which

destabilizes the formation of passivation film.
electrolyte • Commonly used for high machining rate.

• In some cases acidic electrolyte are preferable for EMM process

Acidic electrolyte because it does not create any insoluble reaction products {e.g.
Sodium nitrate chloride (pH=7)}

35 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

 Difference between Macro & Micro ECM

36 Image source: Bijoy Bhattacharyya, Electrochemical Micromachining for Nanofabrication, MEMS and Nanotechnology
 Variants of ECM
Variants
Electro stream drilling Wire electrochemical machining Shape tube EC machining

Accurate, high aspect ratio Intricate shapes and micro channels Turbulated cooling holes with
and curved holes can be can be fabricated with low power high aspect ratio in turbine blades
37 drilled easily. input. can be fabricated
 Hybridizations of ECM
Hybridizations
Electrochemical Turning Electrochemical Grinding EC spark machining

Grinding of carbide cutting tools

Precise micro tools and micro Very fine micro features on
inserts, super alloy turbine blades,
features from very hard materials non conducting materials
fragile aerospace honeycomb
can be fabricated. can be made.
38 metals.
 Other Hybrid EMM techniques
Hybridization of EMM with micro EDM
Mechanism
Process begins Discharge
Initially microelectrode is fed down to
generate smaller critical gap such that
spark can be generated by breaking down
the deionized water.

Higher amount of material is removed from

the workpiece by melting and vaporization
due to generated sparks and produce rough
surface.

Gap between electrodes increase hence no

further spark takes place.

Thereafter, electrochemical dissolution

occurs in the gap owing to the slight
conductivity of deionized water and
decreases the surface roughness.
Feeding Dissolution
39 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur
 Hybridization of EMM with laser Introduction of laser beam in the machining zone which
improves the electrolyte circulation and removes the
Beginning of anodic dissolution process oxide layer, and accelerates the anodic dissolution by
enhancing the ionic movement

The accelerated
and controlled
metal removal by
electrochemical
dissolution.

Only anodic dissolution in the

absence of laser beam for achieving
finish machining and reoccurrence
of oxide layer. The process repeats
until the final shape is generated.

The final shape of the workpiece

40 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur
 Introduction to Wire electrochemical machining (WECM)

Principle

Mechanism of Wire electrochemical machining Current density distribution in Wire electrochemical

machining
41 Image source: electrochemicalmachining.com
Fishbone (Ishikawa) diagram of Wire EMM

42 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

 Applications of Wire electrochemical machining

The abrasive electrochemical multi wire saw schematics (a) Silicon wafer (b) Solar cell

Surface Textures: Application in inducing hydrophobicity

High aspect ratio slots in Stainless Steel Monoblock
on metallic surface
Application in gas delivery injection semiconductors
(Wire ECM)
43 Image source: electrochemicalmachining.com
Process Comparison of Wire EDM & Wire ECM
Surface integrity of Inconel 718
Wire EDM

WEDM rim zone after main cut

Wire ECM

WECM rim zone after main cut

44 Image source: jauvtismp.com
 Microtool fabrication using Electrochemical Micromachining (EMM)
Existing methods of cylindrical micro tool fabrication

Reverse F.I.B. Reverse

EDM Machining ECM

Limitation: High relative electrode Limitation: This process has very Limitation: Generation of diffusion
wear leads to variation in the slow material removal rate. Also, the layer at anode restricts the uniform
dimensions of fabricated micro tool. machine setup cost is very high. reduction in tool diameter in micron
range.
45
 Electrochemical Micromachining for micro tool fabrication
Electrochemical Etching Drop off method

Existing methods are practically incapable of producing micro tools of uniform cross section and desired diameter with
tight relative tolerance. Hence, there is a need for a new process/technique to solve these problems.
46
 Introduction to Wire Electrochemical Turning Process (Wire – EC - Trg)
A novel machining technique, developed at IIT Kanpur, which employs wire electrochemical
machining process to perform various turning operations possible on a conventional lathe machine,
on macro/micro shafts.

Schematic diagram:

47 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

 Introduction to Wire Electrochemical Turning Process (Wire – EC - Trg)

Multi Step turning Turning Threading

Operations

Taper turning Grooving/Parting

48
Investigations into Wire Electrochemical Turning (Wire-ECTrg) process
Finite Element Simulation for predicting the Anode profile within 360 degrees rotation of w/p

0ᵒ 90ᵒ 180ᵒ

270ᵒ 360ᵒ L: 300 μm

Initial dia: 400 μm
App. Potential: 15 V
Rotational speed: 2ᵒ/s
Electrolyte cond.: 24.24 mS/cm

49 All dimensions in μm
 Recent advancements in Electrochemical Micromachining (EMM)

Solid State Superionic Stamping (S4) Technique

It is a technique of directly patterning metal at nano-scale with excellent dimensional resolution and
flexibility.

This technique relies on the use of a stamp made of a patterned solid electrolyte, the selective removal of
material from a metal substrate with a controlled electrical potential and the subsequent formation of a
complimentary pattern at the contact.

50 Image source: Reference 22 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

 Solid State Superionic Stamping (S4) Technique
It is a five step process:

1. On the silver substrate silver atoms at the vicinity of surface

defects such as dislocations and pine holes are first freed from
their regular lattice positions

2. These surface adatoms are then free to migrate along the

substrate surface until they reach the tri-phase positions on
the interface where silver sulphide, silver substrate, and defects
on the silver sulphide surface are all in contact with one another.

3. At these positions the silver adatoms are then able to be

stripped of their electrons and turn into ions.

4. These mobile ions then incorporated into and free to migrate

through the silver sulphide matrix.

5. The formation and growth of pores on the silver substrate

surface where this is actual contact finally leads to the patterning of
desired shape and size.
51 Image source: Reference 22 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur
 Biochemical Micromachining
Biochemical machining is a process which utilises enzymatic biodegradation for the removal of material.
Here, micro organisms are used as tools to remove material from workpiece and this technique can prove to
be an alternate for present micro machining methods.

Procedure for
Biochemical
micromachining

52 Image source: Reference 22

 Biochemical Micromachining
Machining on Copper

The microorganism Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans was used as the tool. This bacterium is about 1 μm long, so a
metal can be cut to 1 µm resolution theoretically [22].

53
 Bias assisted Scanning Probe Lithography (For growing oxide film)
This method rely on the formation of nano size electrochemical cell. In the humid environment, due to
capillary condensation, a meniscus is formed at the tip of contact point between tool and workpiece. The
water meniscus is stable and once the tip is negatively biased, it becomes the source of ionic oxidizing species
which are able to migrate and grow oxides on target species.

54
Bias assisted Scanning Probe Lithography (For growing oxide film)
Apart from silica, this technique is used to modify different substrates like silicon nitride, metals, both bulk
and film and molecularly functional passivator surfaces such as self assembled mono layers. Also used for
fabricating nano wires and nano scale tunnel barriers in single electron transistors.

55
 Nano ECM
Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) based
ECM, reactions are confined to the tunneling
region due to depletion of electrolyte in the tip-
surface gap.
Ion
conducting
Precision below 100 nm polymer
SEM images of W
500 ps voltage pulses microelectrode before (a) and
after Nafion coating (b) below
5 µm deep spiral
machined in Ni
sheet.

Ni
ECMM
Tungsten

Ultra short
voltage pulses
The surface topography of biomedical implants plays an
important role for cell attachment and differentiation
* Tungsten µ-tool was produced by focused ion
beam milling

Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur 56

Futuristic challenges in EMM/WEMM

• The inter electrode gap in WEMM is in the range of 7 µm to

Electrolyte 10 µm and flushing of electrolyte in the gap is a challenge.
Flushing

• For a given electrolyte different components of an alloy

dissociates at different rates forming pits on the surface and
Machining hence leading to very poor surface finish.
of alloy

• The object corrodes readily in air after being machined with

ECM/EMM, hence reducing its life.
Corrosion

57 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

 Ongoing Work at Micromanufacturing Lab IIT K

• A separate set up especially designed

In-house for wire ECM process is fabricated in
the lab. This set-up is further
modified for wire electrochemical
Fabricated turning operation. Different
Set-up experiments are performed to
demonstrate the capability of the set-
up and the process.

• Machine Specifications:
(a) Voltage range – 0-32 V.
(b) Current range – 0- 5 Amps.
(c) Electrolyte flow rate – 3 m/s
maximum (axial and non axial).
(d) Electrolyte flow type – Jet and Mist.
(e) Minimum spatial resolution – 0.1
μm/sec (in x, y and z direction).
(f) Working volume -200mm X 200 mm
X 200 mm.
(g) Wire (tool) length – 100 mm.
(h) Mechanical reduction ratio -36:1 .
(i) Maximum workpiece rpm – 200.

58
 Ongoing Work
• Machining of Cu in near neutral
passivating electrolyte (KCl) led
Reduction of to the formation of stable CuO.
Its presence was confirmed by
side gap XRD imaging of the precipitate.
CuO being non conducting,
using a passive forms a film on the anode
film surface and significantly lowers
its dissolution rate. This also
lowers the side gap.
Side gap was reduced
to 26.8 µm by using a
wire of diameter 200
µm on Copper sheet of
thickness 500 µm.

SEM image of side wall of kerf XRD image of the precipitate (above) and reference CuO XRD
59 graph for comparison (below)
 Investigations into Wire Electrochemical Turning (Wire-ECTrg) process
Micro tool of WC fabricated using Wire-ECTrg Step turning

60
Taper turning Threading (Ball-full radius profile)
 With masking
Ongoing Work
• Threads are fabricated using
Threading masking and without
using masking techniques. Mask is
generated on the workpiece
Wire-EMM using laser.

Ti-6Al-4V Copper

Pitch
Pitch 1200 µm
1500 μm

Stainless Steel
Ball-full
Radius thread
profile Pitch
450 µm

Fabrication of mask using laser

61
 Wire Mesh Electrochemical Texturing
Electrochemical wire mesh sinking methodology

Electrochemical
wire mesh sinking
Experiments

Coating of tool
for improving
current density

Stray
current
effect
reduction
through
62
coating
Micro-pillars fabrication through composite tool : Methodology
C/S of
Micro-channels Micro-channel

90°
Battery Tools

(-)

Workpiece (+)

Micro-pillars

C/S of Protrusions

63
High Areal Density micro-rings machined
On hypodermic needle

• Diameter: 337.0 µm
• Depth of Dimple: 20 µm
• IEG: 100 µm Inaccuracy

• Voltage: 4V
• Tool diameter: 240 µm
• Electrolyte: NaNO3 (0.5M)
• Magnification: 5x

64
Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur
 Conclusions

 Electrochemical machining offers various advantages over other advanced manufacturing processes. As
it is a non contact and non thermal process, properties of parent material remains unaltered.
 Removal of material at ionic level makes this process suitable for micromachining and finishing
operations.
 Since the commercialization of electrochemical dissolution phenomenon for machining of hard metals,
different variants and hybridizations are developed. Wire electrochemical machining is one of them.
 Theoretically zero TWR in ECM enables the use of wire with very small diameter (up to 5 μm), making
WECM a suitable process for micro machining on flat, curved and freeform surfaces.
 Previously existing techniques for micro tool fabrication have major drawbacks and fabrication of
micro tool with high relative tolerance is difficult. Thus, a new technique is developed (Wire - EC- Trg)
and its abilities are demonstrated. A mathematical model for predicting the final tool diameter is
presented and is also experimentally verified.
 Recent developments in EMM are presented which examines the compatibility of this process in Nano
fabrication. Solid state superionic stamping, Biochemical machining and Bias assisted scanning probe
lithography are amongst these advancements.
 Futuristic challenges in both EMM and WEMM are highlighted.
 Lastly, ongoing work on ECM/EMM at micro machining lab (IIT Kanpur) is presented.

65 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

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 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

68 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur