This document provides an overview of knowledge-based agents and logic. It discusses how knowledge bases are central to knowledge-based agents and how they are built using declarative and procedural approaches. Logic forms the foundation for representing knowledge in knowledge bases. Propositional and first-order logic are introduced as knowledge representation languages. Propositional logic uses atomic sentences and logical connectives to represent knowledge, while first-order logic is more expressive and can represent knowledge about objects and relations between objects. An example of using propositional logic to represent knowledge about the Wumpus world is also provided.
This document provides an overview of knowledge-based agents and logic. It discusses how knowledge bases are central to knowledge-based agents and how they are built using declarative and procedural approaches. Logic forms the foundation for representing knowledge in knowledge bases. Propositional and first-order logic are introduced as knowledge representation languages. Propositional logic uses atomic sentences and logical connectives to represent knowledge, while first-order logic is more expressive and can represent knowledge about objects and relations between objects. An example of using propositional logic to represent knowledge about the Wumpus world is also provided.
This document provides an overview of knowledge-based agents and logic. It discusses how knowledge bases are central to knowledge-based agents and how they are built using declarative and procedural approaches. Logic forms the foundation for representing knowledge in knowledge bases. Propositional and first-order logic are introduced as knowledge representation languages. Propositional logic uses atomic sentences and logical connectives to represent knowledge, while first-order logic is more expressive and can represent knowledge about objects and relations between objects. An example of using propositional logic to represent knowledge about the Wumpus world is also provided.
This document provides an overview of knowledge-based agents and logic. It discusses how knowledge bases are central to knowledge-based agents and how they are built using declarative and procedural approaches. Logic forms the foundation for representing knowledge in knowledge bases. Propositional and first-order logic are introduced as knowledge representation languages. Propositional logic uses atomic sentences and logical connectives to represent knowledge, while first-order logic is more expressive and can represent knowledge about objects and relations between objects. An example of using propositional logic to represent knowledge about the Wumpus world is also provided.
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Chapter four
Knowledge based agents & logics
Knowledge and reasoning • Representation of knowledge is central to the field of AI • Play crucial role in dealing with partially observable environment (inferring for hidden aspects of the environment) • Understanding natural language also require inferring hidden state Knowledge-based agents • Their central component is the knowledge base (KB) • KB – Is a set of sentences (not as in natural language) – Each sentence is expressed according to the syntax of a language called knowledge representation language Building Process • One can build KB agent simply by TELLing it what it needs to know • Two approaches to building – Declarative = expressing the knowledge in a form of sentences using representation language – Procedural = encoding desired behaviors directly as program code • The combination of the to is critical to success • In addition to TELLing, a learning mechanism can be provided to the KB • all this is done by theory and technology of logic Case • To understand the overall process, let’s consider the following domain: The Wumpus World – A cave – Wumpus is a beast – Agent can shoot and kill – Some rooms contain pits – Pits trap everyone who enters their room – Finding a heap of gold is wining Cont.. • PEAS description • Performance measure – + 1000 for picking up the gold – -1000 for falling into pit or being eaten by the wumpus – -1 for each action taken and – -10 for using up the arrow Cont.. • Environment – 4x4 grid of rooms – The agent always start in the square [1,1] facing right – The location of wumpus & gold is random (not in [1,1]) …cont • Actuators – Can move forward – Turn right and left by 90o – The action grab allow to pick up object (in the room the agent located) – Shoot allow to fire and arrow straight (but the agent has only one arrow) …cont • Sensors – Perceive stench:- in the square containing wumpus & in the directly (not diagonally) adjacent squares – Perceive breeze:- in the square directly adjacent to a pit – Perceive glitter:- in the square containing gold – Perceive a bump:- when walk into a wall – Perceive woeful scream:- when wumpus is killed • Percept order:- Eg= if there is stench & breeze, but no glitter, bump, or scream [stench, breeze, none, none, none] …cont • The agent’s initial knowledge contain the rule of the environment – It knows that it is in [1,1] and that [1,1] is safe – Its knowledge evolves as new percepts arrive and actions are taken …cont • Scenario – First percept [none, none, none, none, none]
– Hence, the agent can conclude that its neighboring squares
are safe (i.e., [1,2] &[2,1] …cont • Suppose the agent move to square [2,1]
• The agent detect breeze in [2,1]
– There must be a pit in [2,2] or [3,1] – Can not be in [1,1] – rule of the game …cont • Therefore, there is only one ok - has not been visited – square; [1,2] • Accordingly, the agent turn around, go back to [1,1] & then proceed to [1,2] • The new percept = [stench, none, none, none, none]
• Stench in [1,2] means:
– Wumpus nearby, cannot be in [1,1]-rule – Cannot be in [2,2]- would have detect it when in [2,1] – Therefore can infer, the wumpus is in [1,3] – Moreover, lack of breeze in [1,2] no pit in [2,2] – it must be in [3,1] Cont… • We are able to reason like this, why don’t we let the agent to do so. – It is done by logical reasoning – So let us discuss about logic logic • Logic forms the foundation to write the KB of knowledge based agents – Therefore, logic is the representation language for the KB – Representational language specifies the allowed syntax and semantics • Syntax – Representation language specifies all the sentence that are well formed • Example; in arithmetic – X+y=4 is well-formed sentence, but – X4y+= is not – There are many syntax in logic …cont • Semantic – Semantic of the language define the truth of each sentence with respect to each model (possible world) – Example; in arithmetic semantic • X+y=4 is true in a world where x=2 and y=2, but false in a world x=1 and y=1 • In logic every sentence must be true or false – there is no “in between” ….cont • Models – Are abstractions that fixes the truth or falsehood of every relevant sentences – Example; in x+y=4 (arithmetic) • Possible models are just all the possible assignment of numbers to the variable x & y (i.e., combination of numbers 0-9) • Each such assignment fixes the truth value of the sentence Logical Reasoning • Involves the relation of logical entailment between sentences • Entailment is the idea that a sentence logically follows from another sentence – Example: • α = all men are mortal, Mesay is a man • ϐ = therefore, Mesay is………… • Notation = …cont • Example; the wumpus world – Consider the situation in the following figure – Percept= nothing in [1,1] – And breeze in [2,1] – Interest = whether – [1,2],[2,2] and [3,1] contains pit – That is three squares – Hence 23 = 8 possible models • KB is false in models that contradict with what the agent knows – KB is false in any model in which [1,2] contains a pit, because no breeze in [1,1] ….cont • There are three models in which KB is true • Consider two conclusions – α1 = no pit in [1,2] – α2 = no pit in [2,2]
• We can see that
– In every model KB is true, α1 is also true – Hence KB entails α1 – Also in some models KB true, α2 is false – Therefore, KB does not entail α2 (the agent cannot conclude no pit in [2,2] Entailment and inference • Think of the set of all consequences of KB as a haystack and of α as a needle – Entailment is like the needle being in the haystack – Inference is like finding it • Formal notation; if an inference algorithm i can drive α from KB, we write
• Pronounced as “α is derived from KB by i
Soundness and completeness • Soundness – An inference algorithm that drives only entailed sentences is called sound • Completeness – An inference algorithm is complete if it can derive any sentence that is entailed • Note:- if KB is true the real world, then any sentence derived from KB by a sound inference procedure is true in the real world Propositional Logic • It is a very simple logic used to represent some knowledge • Syntax (allowable sentences) – Atomic sentences • Indivisible syntactic elements • Consists of single propositional symbol • Symbols stand for a proposition that can be true or false • Use uppercase names for symbols • Naming can be arbitrary like W1,3 to mean wumpus in the square [1,3] • Two propositional symbols with fixed meaning: True and False …cont • Complex sentences – Constructed from simpler sentences using logical connectives • Logical connectives – Ʌ(and), V(or), →(implies) ↔(if and only if), ┐(not) • Conjunction – A sentence whose main connective is Ʌ – Eg: P Ʌ Q – P and Q are called conjucts …cont • Disjunction – A sentence using V – Eg: P V Q – P V Q are called disjuncts • Implication (conditional) – A sentence using → – Eg: P → Q – P is called its premises or antecedent – Q is called conclusion or consequent • Biconditional – A sentence like P ↔ Q …cont • Formal grammar Semantics • Defines the rules for determining the truth of a sentence • Computing the truth value of sentences – True is always true and False is false – The truth value of every other propositional symbol must be specified directly – The truth value for complex sentences can be obtained from truth table Example of KB using propositional logic • For wumpus world • Deal only with pits • Vocabulary of propositional symbols – For each I, j – Let Pi,j be true if there is a pit in [i,j] – Let Bi,j be true if there is a breeze in [i.j] ..cont • The knowledge base sentences – There is no pit in [1,1] = R1: ┐P1,1 – A square is breezy iff there is a pit in a neighboring square (has to be stated for each square) • R2: B1,1 ↔ (P1,2 V P2,1) • R3: B2,1 ↔ (P1,1 V P2,2 V P3,1) • The above sentences are true in all wumpus world …cont • When we include the breeze percept for the picture below – R4: ┐B1,1 – R5: B2,1 First-Order Logic (FOL) • Propositional logic is insufficient to represent knowledge of complex environments • Example; to state “ squares surrounding pits are breezy – We are forced to write B1,1 ↔ (P1,2 V P2,1) for each squares separately – Hence, we need more expressive language • FOL is more expressive than propositional logic ..cont • Major difference between the two is their assumption about nature of reality – Propositional logic assumes there are facts that either hold or do not hold in the world. Each fact can be in one of two states – true or false – FOL assumes the world consists of objects with certain relations that do or do not hold ( again these can be in one of the two states) …cont • According to FOL the world can be considered as containing the following components • Objects: people, house, theories, colors,… • Relations: can be unary (properties) such as red, round, – Or generally n-ary such as brother of, bigger than • Functions: is a relations in which there is only one value for a given input – Such as father of, best friend, one more than …cont • Any assertion can be broken down to objects and properties or relations – Example: “one plus two equals three” • Objects: one, two, three • Relations: equals • Function: plus – “squares neighboring wumpus are smelly” • Objects: wumpus, squares • Property: smelly • Relation: neighboring FOL Syntax • The basic syntactic elements are the symbols that stands for objects, relations, and functions • Therefore, there are three kinds of symbols – Constant symbols = stand for objects – Predicate symbols = stand for relations – Function symbols = stand for functions • Convention: these symbols start with uppercase letter • Propositional connectives (Ʌ(and), V(or), →(implies) ↔(if and only if), ┐(not)) are used ….cont • Example: Block-world – Contains three blocks (block A, B & C) – A block can be on another block or on the floor – When a block has no block on it we say it is clear …cont • The interpretation and symbols are SymbolWorld A Bock A B Block B constant symbols C Bock C Fl Floor On on relation Clear clear relation