Behavioural Theories of Leaning

(Behaviourism)
Learning is a function of change in overt
behaviour, i.e. nothing to do with mental
processes. Human behaviour is observable &
measurable, not the mental processes.
Human behaviour is the product of
CONDITIONING.
In the behaviourist view, anyone can be
conditioned to do anything (including to learn
something) regardless of their attitudes, abilities
or experiences.

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 3 Proponents of Behaviourism

• J.B. Watson (1878 – 1958)

• E.L. Thorndike (1874 – 1949)
• B.F. Skinner (1904 – 1990)

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 Conditioning
• Conditioning involves forming associations
between environmental stimuli and responses:
– Two types of conditioning are:
• Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
• Unlike other theories Behaviorism omits the
mental processes from explanation of human
behavior.

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 Watson: Classical Conditioning

• Watson showed that emotions could be

learned by conditioning
• Watson’s work was inspired by
Pavlov’s experiment on classical
conditioning

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 Pavlov’s Apparatus

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 Classical Conditioning by Ivan Pavlov

(NS)

Conditioning can be used to initiate an intended response

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 Extension of Pavlov’s experiment:
• Generalisation
• Discrimination
• Extinction

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 Extinction
• If after, conditioning, the conditioned
stimulus is repeatedly present without the
unconditioned stimulus the conditioned
response will eventually disappear.
• Extinction the weakening and eventual
disappearance of a learned response; in
classical conditioning. It occurs when the
conditioning stimulus is not longer paired
with the unconditioned stimulus

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 Stimulus Generalization
• After conditioning, the tendency to respond to a
stimulus that resembles one involved in the
original conditioning; in classical conditioning, it
occurs when a stimulus that resembles the
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) elicits the Condition
Response (CR)

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 Stimulus Generalization
• After conditioning, the tendency to
respond to a stimulus that resembles one
involved in the original conditioning; in
classical conditioning, it occurs when a
stimulus that resembles the Conditioned
Stimulus (CS) elicits the Condition
Response (CR)

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 Exercise
Name the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response,
conditioned
stimulus, and conditioned response in this situations.
• Five-year-old Ahmad is watching a storm from her window A huge
bolt of lightning is followed by a tremendous thunderclap, and
Ahmad jumps at the noise. This happens several more times.
There is a brief lull and then another lightning bolt. Ahmad jumps in
response to the bolt.
• US ___________
• UR ___________
• CS ___________
• CR ___________

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Name the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response,
conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response in this
situations.
• Naveen’s mouth waters whenever he eats anything with
lemon in it. One day, while reading an ad that show a
big glass of lemonade, Naveen notices his mouth
watering.
US ___________
UR ___________
CS ___________
CR ___________

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 “Little Albert” Experiment by Watson

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BEFORE CONDITIONING
White Rat No fear
(Unconditioned Stimulus) (Unconditioned Response)

DURING CONDITIONING
White Rat Albert cries and avoid
(Unconditioned Stimulus)
touching – Fear
Loud Noise
(Conditioning Stimulus) (Unconditioned Response)

AFTER CONDITIONING
White Rat Fear
(Conditioned Stimulus)
(Conditioned Response)

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 Watson’s Experiment

• Albert had LEARNED to fear the white rat

because of its association with the loud noise.
• Watson’s experiment indicated that our
emotional reactions can be rearranged through
classical conditioning

Watson had no chance to help Albert to

overcome his fear.
If you were Watson, how would you help
Albert?
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 Thorndike’s
S-R THEORY

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 Thorndike – Connectionism (S-R Theory)

• Learning is the result of associations (connections)

between STIMULUS (S) and RESPONSE (R).
E.g. Pressing the lever (S) Door opening (R)
• The associations (habits) become strengthened or
weakened by the nature & frequency of pairings.
E.g. A particular S-R connection was established
because pairings happened many times
• The basic form of learning is trial and error learning in
which certain responses come dominate others due to
rewards.
E.g. A particular S-R connection was established if it
was rewarded (i.e. escape from box & food)

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 Thorndike’s Theories of Learning
• The Law of Readiness
One will act if one is ready. When one is ready to act, to do so is
satisfying while not doing so is annoying
• The Law of Exercise
S-R connection is strengthened with practice but weakened when
practice is discontinued.
• The Law of Effect
The strength of S-R connection is influenced by the consequence. If
the response is followed by a pleasant consequence, the strength is
increased. If the response is followed by an unpleasant
consequence, the strength is decreased.

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 Implications for Teaching

• Intelligence is the function of the number of S-R

connections formed.
• Complex ideas should be broken down into pre-requisite
concepts. Positive reinforcement should be applied as
these concepts are learned.
• Transfer of Learning
- The degree of transfer between initial and later learning
depends on the match/similarity between elements
across two events
- Transfer is specific, never general.

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 BF Skinner (1904-1990)
• Operant Conditioning
– Behavior operates on the
environment, which in turn
operates on the person

Picture courtesy of B. F. Skinner Foundation

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 Skinner – Operant Conditioning

We choose to behave in a certain way because of the

consequences of the particular behaviour. Our behaviour
is determined by the pleasant or unpleasant
consequence of that behaviour.

 A behaviour reinforced by a pleasant

consequence increases the probability of that
behaviour occurring in the future
 A behaviour no longer followed by a
pleasant consequence results in a decreased
probability of that behaviour occurring in the
future.
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 Skinner (Operant) Box

Behavior

Consequence

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 In operant conditioning, the animal is
active. It presses the bar to get the food.
Its own behaviour (i.e. pressing the bar)
brings about the consequence (i.e. food).
The consequence further reinforces the
behaviour.
Pressing the bar
Reinforcement
Food

Food as an Frequency of bar-

reinforcement pressing increases
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 Principles of Operant Conditioning
(Reinforcement Theory)
Positive
REINFORCEMENT

Negative
PUNISHMENT

Implications for teaching

• Provide feedback
• Use programmed instruction

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 Reinforcement
– Process of providing consequences that
increase or maintain a behavior
– Criteria for reinforcement
• Behavior must have a consequence
• Behavior must increase in strength (occur more
often)
• This increase in strength must be the result of the
consequence

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 Positive (+) Reinforcement

– Response is followed by the appearance of a

stimulus or event that increases or maintains
the frequency of a behavior
• Stimulus or event is called positive reinforcer (SR)
– R-SR (response, reinforcing stimulus)

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 Examples of positive reinforcement

– After feeding a dog a treat for shaking hands,

it will be more likely to shake hands in the
future
– Getting paid at work makes it more likely
you’ll continue to work there
– Nicotine high provides reinforcement for
smoking
– Laughing at my jokes is positively reinforcing
– Winning a trophy following a race reinforces
racing behavior
– Rat pressing lever for food

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 Negative (-) reinforcement

– Response is followed by the removal or

decrease in intensity of a stimulus (negative
reinforcer), with the effect of increasing or
maintaining the frequency of a behavior

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 Examples of negative reinforcement

– Pounding on the wall to quiet your noisy

neighbors
– Taking an aspirin to get rid of an headache
– Changing a baby’s diaper to make it stop
crying
– Wearing deodorant to prevent stinky smells

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 Cognitive Theories of Learning

• Describe and explain the mental processes

involved in learning
• Proponents of Cognition:
 Gestalt Psychologists (e.g. Kohler, Wertheimer, etc)
 Jean Piaget
 Albert Bandura
 Ausubel
Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organisation

• Principle of closure
We have a tendency to complete incomplete
experiences
• Principle of proximity
We tend to organise elements close together as
separate units or groups
• Principle of foreground & background
We tend to see things in relation to their
surroundings.
 Problem Solving by Insight (Kohler)
Our brain is an active information receiver and storer. The brain acts
on the information coming from the environment by making it more
meaningful and organised.

Based on the above principle, Kohler’s (1890 – 1940) conducted

experiments on problem solving by Chimpanzees. The experiments
indicated that Chimpanzees could see the structure of a situation and
recognise interconnections, thereby gaining INSIGHT into the solution
of a problem. Learning therefore occurs with a realization of
a new relationship.
Implication for Teaching: Teachers should arrange learning situations
so that students will make their own discoveries (i.e. developing
INSIGHT) as they engage in class discussion.
 COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES

COGNITION is the act of knowing or

acquiring knowledge.
COGNITIVE PROCESSES are mental
processes involved in the act of knowing.
It includes perceiving, attention, reasoning,
judging, problem-solving, self-monitoring,
remembering and understanding
 GESTALT THEORIES OF
LEARNING
• The whole is different from the sum of its parts
• Experiences are added that is not contained in
what we see or perceive
• The Law of Pragnanz states that when an
organism sees or experiences something that is
disorganized in the physical environment, the
organism will impose order on what it sees or
experiences.
 GESTALT PRINCIPLES OF PERCEPTUAL
ORGANISATION

• The principle of closure: the tendency to

complete incomplete experiences
• The principle of proximity: the tendency to
organise elements close together as units
or groups
• The principle of background: the tendency
to see in relation to the surrounding
 PROBLEM SOLVING BY INSIGHT

• Problem solving is a cognitive phenomenon

• When confronted with a problem, a state of cognitive
disequilibrium is set up and continues until the problem
is solved.
• A problem can exist in only two states: unsolved and
solved
• Successful problem solving comprises:
a. Getting a whole consistent picture
b. Seeing the structure of the whole in relation to parts
 Characteristics of insightful learning

• The transition from pre-solution to solution is

sudden and complete
• Performance bases on a solution gained by
insight is usually smooth and free of errors
• A solution to a problem gained by insights is
retained for a considerable length of time
• A principle gained by insight is easily applied to
other problems
 Piaget’s Theory of Learning

Schema:
mental or cognitive structures which enable a
person to adapt and organise the environment.
Schemas can become more differentiated and
refined.
Assimilation 
• The process by which a person takes material
into their mind from the environment, which may
mean changing the evidence of their senses to
make it fit.
 
• Is the cognitive process of integrating new
information or experiences into existing or
readily available schema
• It is a quantitative change
 Accommodation 
• Is the creation of new schema or the
modification of old schema
• It is a qualitative change as more schemes are
created
 Stages of Cognitive
Development
•  Sensori-motor :(Birth-2 yrs) 
Differentiates self from objects 
Recognises self as agent of action and begins to
act intentionally: e.g. pulls a string to set mobile
in motion or shakes a rattle to make a noise 
Achieves object permanence: realises that things
continue to exist even when no longer present to
the sense
 Pre-operational 
(2-7 years)
Learns to use language and to represent
objects by images and words.
Thinking is still egocentric: has difficulty
taking the viewpoint of others 
Classifies objects by a single feature: e.g.
groups together all the red blocks
regardless of shape or all the square blocks
regardless of colour 
 Concrete operational: (7-11 years)

Concrete operational: (7-11 years)

 Can think logically about objects and
events. 
Achieves conservation of number (age 6),
mass (age 7), and weight (age 9) 
Classifies objects according to several
features and can order them in series
along a single dimension such as size. 
 Formal operational 
(11 years and up)
 Can think logically about abstract
propositions and test hypotheses
systematically
Becomes concerned with the hypothetical,
the future, and ideological problems. 
 Reflection of the theory

• Piaget's Stage Theory gave educators, a

new way of thinking about teaching and
learning as it allowed them to match the
content of (science) curricula to children's
spontaneous intellectual development
(Bliss, 1995)
• According to Herron (1975), Piaget
developmental level is one which actually
refers to students' intellectual development
and not to psychomotor development.
• A concrete operational student may or may
not be good with his hands. The distinction
is in the reasoning that the student uses and
his or her ability to go beyond actual
experience to reason in terms of what has
not been experienced.
• Piaget has popularized the notion that
logical reasoning cannot be taught (Linn,
1980).
• Piaget as cited by Driscol (2000) considered three
processes as being critical to development of
children passing the above quoted stages.
• They are assimilation, accommodation and
equilibration.
• Assimilation occurs when a child perceives new
objects or events in terms of existing schemes or
operations. For instance, infant who puts thing in
his mouth, grasping and throwing or shaking, are
means of assimilating information about the objects.
Piaget had emphasized the functional quality of
assimilation. That is, children and adults alike tend
to apply any mental structure that is available to
assimilate a new event, and they will actively seek
to use a newly acquired structure.
• Accommodation is considered to have
occurred when existing schemes or
operations must be modified to account for
a new experience.
• For example, Driscoll mentions that solving
a conservation task requires a shift in
thinking for all salient aspects of the task to
be accommodated. Hence it becomes clear
that accommodation influences assimilation
and vice versa and an inadequate attempt
to assimilate some new event into existing
schemes or operations may result in some
adjustment of those schemes or operations
thus accommodating the event.
• The third process of development as identified by
Piaget (cited in Driscoll, 2000) is equilibration.
• To Piaget, equilibration is the master of
developmental process, encompassing both
assimilation and accommodation. Equilibration
characterizes the child's transition from one stage
of development to the next.
• Within each stage, children operate from a set of
logical structure that, for their purposes, work quite
well. But toward the end of a stage, they may
become aware of shortcomings in their way of
thinking. Anomalies of experience create a state of
disequilibrium which can only be resolved when a
more adaptive, more sophisticated mode of thought
is adopted.