DCE3102

THEORIES &
PRACTICES OF HRD:
Learning in HRD

Siti Noormi Alias, PhD

Department of Professional Development and Continuing Education
Faculty of Educational Studies
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Learning Outcome
At the end of this session, students are able to
1. Identify the concept of adult learning
2. determine theories and approaches in learning
3. determine types of learning strategies at the workplace

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Learning Theories
• Learning is the change in the behavior of an organism that is a result of prior experience
• Learning theories is an attempt to describe how humans learn to help us all understand the
complexities inherent process of learning
• Main perspectives in learning theory
• Behaviorism
• Cognitivism
• Constructivism
• Connectivism
• Identify which theory applicable to specific learning situations/events to improve learning quality
• the purpose of learning theory is to determine the appropriate learning method/strategy to obtain optimal results
• pays attention to how a person influences other people to make the learning process.
• learning theory deals with efforts to control specific variables to facilitate learning.
• the purpose of learning theory is to explain the learning process.
• Learning theory pays attention to how a person learns.

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Behaviorism
• Main influences of behaviourist psychology were Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), Edward
Lee Thorndike (1874-1949), John B. Watson (1878-1958), and B.F. Skinner (1904-
1990)
• Concerned with observable and measurable aspects of human behavior
• Change in behavior resulting from stimulus-response behaviors
• Behaviorism focuses on observed actions, the conditions under which they are
performed, and the reinforcement of desired behaviors.
• A change in performance is evident after the learning process, and the outcome is
measured in terms of being able to demonstrate a specific new behavior.
• Main theories
• Classical conditioning
• Operant conditioning

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 Behaviorism: Classical
Conditioning
• Pavlov’s Theory of Classical Conditioning
• Involves the reinforcement of a natural reflex or some other behaviour which occurs as a
response to a particular stimulus.
• Ivan Pavlov conditioned dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell.
• He noticed that dogs salivated when they ate, or even saw, food.
• In his initial experiments he sounded a bell at the time when food was presented to the dogs.
• The sound of the bell became, for the dogs, an indication that food was about to be presented and
eventually the dogs would salivate at the sound of the bell irrespective of the presence of food.
• The dogs had been conditioned to respond to the sound of the bell by producing saliva.
• Their behaviour had been successfully modified.
• Example of conditioned responses
• Feelings of fear at the sound of the dentist’s drill or at the sight of a syringe in preparation for an
injection

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 4 Stages of Classical
Conditioning

Acquisition Extinction Generalisation Discrimination

Once learnt, a Discrimination is the

After a conditioned
conditioned response opposite of generalisation.
response to one
The initial learning will not remain An individual learns to
stimulus has been produce a conditioned
indefinitely. Extinction is
of the conditioned used to describe the
learnt, it may also response to one stimulus
respond to similar but not to another similar
response – for disappearance of the stimulus. For example, a
stimuli without further
example, the dog conditioned response child may show a fear
training. If a child is
brought about by response to freely roaming
salivating at the repeatedly presenting
bitten by a dog, the child dogs, but may show no fear
sound of the bell may fear not only that when a dog is on a lead, or
the bell,
particular dog, but all distrust Alsatians but not
for example, without
dogs Jack Russell terriers
then presenting food

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Behaviorist Teaching
Strategies
Teachers can implement behavioral learning strategy techniques in their classroom
in many ways, including:
• Drills. Teachers may practice skills using drill patterns to help students see the
repetition and reinforcement that behavioral learning theory uses.
• Question and answer. Teachers can use a question as a stimulus and answer as a
response, gradually getting harder with questions to help students.
• Guided practice. Teachers can be directly involved in helping students go through
problems to give them the reinforcement and behavior demonstration you want
them to follow.
• Regular review. Reviews are important to behavioral learning theory. Going back
over material and giving positive reinforcement will help students retain
information much better.
• Positive reinforcement. Behaviorist classrooms utilize positive reinforcement
regularly. This can be in the form of verbal reinforcement and praise, reward
systems, added privileges, and more.

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 Behaviorism: Operant
Conditioning
• Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
• the most important type of behaviourist learning
• More flexible compared to CC
• involves reinforcing a behaviour by rewarding it
• also work in a negative way, when an undesirable behaviour can
be discouraged, by following it with punishment
• For example, if a mother gives her child a chocolate bar every
day that he tidies his bedroom, the child may spend some time
each day tidying
• Skinner studied the behaviour of rats and pigeons, and
made generalisations of his discoveries to humans.
• He used a device now called a Skinner box
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Skinner Box
• Simple, empty box in which an animal could earn
food by making simple responses,such as pressing a
lever
• A normal,a lmost random action by the animal, such
as pressing a lever in the box, would result in a
reward, such as a pellet of food.
• As the rewards continued for the repetition of the
action, the animal ‘learnt’ that in order to be fed it
must press the lever.
• Skinner maintained that rewards and punishments
control the majority of human behaviours, and that
the principles of operant conditioning can explain all
human learning.

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Aspects of Operant
Conditioning
• Reinforcer is an event that follows a
response and that changes the
probability of a response's occurring
again.
• Reinforcement is simply the
observed effect of a reinforcer
• Whether an event is reinforcing or
not depends solely on its effects
• Thus the same event might be
reinforcing on one occasion, but not
on another
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Reinforcer: Operant
Conditioning Example
Henry, a freckle-faced, lovable little child of 10. Henry takes a spelling test for
which he has studied very hard, using a number of mnemonic devices. For
example, to remember how to spell separate, he talked himself into
remembering that there is "a rat" in the word. He receives a score of 95% on
his spelling test.

Agnes, a bright little girl who always gets 100% in spelling without using
mnemonic tricks. But this time she does use one; in fact, she uses the same
mnemonic device as Henry. Unlike Henry, though, she becomes confused on
the test and thinks there is "erat" in separate. She also receives a grade o
f95%.

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Types of Reinforcement
• 2 Types of reinforcement
• Positive reinforcement - a "satisfying" consequence of a behavior
• positive reinforcement occurs when the consequences of the behavior, when added to a
situation immediately after a response, increase the probability that the response will
occur again in similar circumstances.
• This type of reinforcement is similar to reward. It involves a positive contingency
(consequence)
• Negative reinforcement - a behavior that results in the elimination or
prevention of an "annoying" outcome
• occurs when the probability that a response will occur increases as a function of
something being taken away from a situation.
• Negative reinforcement is similar to relief. It involves the removal of an aversive
contingency

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Types of Punishment
• defined in terms of its effects
• 2 types of punishment, each the converse of a type of reinforcer
• Penalty (Type II or removal punishment) - punishment that occurs when a
pleasant contingency is removed
• Castigation (Type 1 or presentation punishment) - when an aversive
contingency follows a behavior

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Punishment Vs. -ve
Reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement is a procedure that increases the probability of a behavior; punishment
decreases the probability of a response.
• Consequently, negative reinforcement typically involves the termination of an event that might
be considered aversive (the termination of an aversive contingency); punishment involves
introducing an aversive contingency or terminating a pleasant (appetitive) one

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Cognitivism
• Theory of learning that focuses on processes of the mind
• Cognitivist learning states that the way we learn is determined by the
way our mind takes in, stores, processes, and then accesses
information.
• When we learn new things, our brains are able to transfer the
information we have learned and apply the information to new
situations or problems.
• Cognitive science investigates ‘intelligence and intelligent systems,
with particular reference to intelligent behaviour’ (Posner 1984)
• One of the main contributors of cognitivism was Jean Piaget
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Piaget’s Stage of
Development

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Pritchard (2019, p.19)
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 Assimilation,
Accommodation, and
Equilibrium
• Illustration of Schema, Assimilation, & Accommodation
• Assimilation is the process whereby new knowledge is incorporated
into existing mental structures. The knowledge bank is increased to
include new information
• Accommodation is the process whereby mental structures have to be
altered in order to cope with the new experience which has
contradicted the existing model.
• Equilibration is the process of arriving at a stable state where there is
no longer a conflict between new and existing knowledge

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Assimilation Process

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Accommodation Process

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Constructivism
• It is based on the premise that individuals learn by constructing new ideas, and
an understanding of the world is based on prior knowledge and experiences.
• people actively construct or make their own knowledge and that reality is determined by
the experiences of the learner’ (Elliott et al., 2000, p. 256)
• Knowledge is built by adapting new information through the lens of previous
experience.
• Constructivism focuses on the internal thinking of an individual, like cognitivism,
but makes no assumptions on how concepts will be manipulated or what links
will be made.
• Since the basis of learning is placed on making connections and creating ideas
from prior knowledge, these mental representations are very subjective, and
each individual will have a unique construction of knowledge

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Constructivism Philosophy
• Knowledge is constructed rather than innate, or
passively absorbed
• Learning is an active process
• All knowledge is socially constructed.
• All knowledge is personal
• Learning exists in the mind

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 Types of
Constructivism

Cognitive Social
constructivism constructivism Radical
Constructivism
(Jean Piaget) (Lev Vygotsk)

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 Cognitive Radical
Social Constructivism
Constructivism Constructivism

Knowledge is constructed Knowledge is constructed by

Knowledge is created through
through mental processes such the individual through their
social interactions and
as attention, perception, and subjective experiences and
collaboration with others.
memory. interactions with the world.

The learner is the sole

The learner is an active The learner is an active
constructor of knowledge and
participant in the construction problem-solver who constructs
meaning, and their reality is
of knowledge and learning is a knowledge through mental
subjective and constantly
social process. processes.
evolving.

The teacher facilitates learning The teacher provides The teacher encourages the
by providing opportunities for information and resources for learner to question and reflect
social interaction and the learner to construct their on their experiences to
collaboration. own understanding. construct their own knowledge.

Learning is an individual Learning is an individual and

Learning is a social process that
process that involves mental subjective process that involves
involves collaboration,
processes such as attention, constructing meaning from
negotiation, and reflection.
perception, and memory. one’s experiences.

Reality is objective and exists

Reality is socially constructed Reality is subjective and
independently of the learner,
and subjective, and there is no constantly evolving, and there
but the learner constructs their
one objective truth. is no one objective truth.
own understanding of it.

For example: Reflecting on

For example: Collaborative For example: Solving a math
personal experiences to
group work in a classroom problem using mental
construct meaning and
setting. processes.
understanding.
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Features of Constructivist
Classroom

Source: https://www.simplypsychology.org/constructivism.html
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Connectivism
• Proposed by Geoge Siemens & Stephen Downes
• Grounded in the notion that learning is through the formation of connections between
each other as well as their roles, hobbies, and other aspects of life.
• The use of technology as a major factor in learning process
• Learning can successfully happen through digital channels, including social media, forums,
videos, and blogs
• Therefore learning is the ability to traverse and construct these networks.
• Connectivism builds on the ideas of cognitivism, but in this theory, learning does not
reside only within an individual, but rather also within and across a network of
individuals.
• A "community of practice" has connectivism as its theoretical underpinning. Knowledge
can reside outside the individual, but learning focuses on organizing and locating
specialized information that may be decentralized from an individual.
https://opentextbc.ca/teachinginadigitalage/chapter/3-6-
connectivism/ With Knowledge We
With Knowledge We
Principles of Connectivism
• Learning and knowledge rests in diversity of opinions.
• Learning is a process of connecting specialized nodes or information sources.
• Learning may reside in non-human appliances.
• Capacity to know more is more critical than what is currently known
• Nurturing and maintaining connections is needed to facilitate continual learning.
• Ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and concepts is a core skill.
• Currency (accurate, up-to-date knowledge) is the intent of all connectivist learning
activities.
• Decision-making is itself a learning process. Choosing what to learn and the meaning of
incoming information is seen through the lens of a shifting reality. While there is a right
answer now, it may be wrong tomorrow due to alterations in the information climate
affecting the decision.
Siemens (2005)

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Application of Connectivism
• Massive open online course (MOOC

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Learning Styles
• Refers to preferred way of thinking, processing, and understanding
information
• Teaching style – the way instructors teach
• Everybody is born with capability to learn
• Individuals have a preferred style in which they learn best
• Learning styles scholars
• Anthony Gregorc
• Dunn & Dunn
• Howard Gardner
• Neil D. Fleming

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Dr. Gregorc’s Mind Style
• Mind style model provides a depiction of how our mind works
• Four cognitive styles necessary for perceiving, processing, and
ordering information
• Concrete sequential (CS)
• Abstract sequential (AS)
• Abstract random (AR)
• Concrete random (CR)
• Concrete & abstract describe the perceptual qualities that an
individual uses to refer to the world in which he or she lives

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 Characteristics of A Characteristics of An
Concrete Individual Abstract Individual

• Relate the world to their • focus on their feelings, relationships

physical and active “self” and ideas
• Catalog information directly • Visualize, imagine ideas, and
through the five senses: understand or believe what one
smell, sight, taste, touch and actually cannot see
hearing • Use insight and imagination to
• Involves dealing with present understand that “things aren’t
situations, understanding “it always what they seem”
is what it is”

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 Characteristics of A Characteristics of A
Sequential Individual Random Individual

• Organize information in a • Allow their mind to organize

linear, step-by-step manner information in chunks that occur in
• Use logical train of thought no particular order
and traditional approaches • Skip procedural steps but still
to deal with information accomplish the desired results
• Often have a plan to follow • Impulsive and impromptu in their
actions

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Gregorc’s Mind Style Characteristics

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Application for Everyday
Classroom Use

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Dunn & Dunn Learning
Styles Model
• The most widely used and researched
• One of the first models to emphasize identifying a student’s learning style
through a diagnostic inventory
• Pairs educational dogma, curricular strategies, and diagnostic tools with a view
of the whole child by using techniques that address what the teacher does,
what the student does, how the classroom is organized, the procedures and
and materials to be used, etc.
• Consists of 4 basic components
• The learning principles of the model
• Learning style dimensions
• Learning style diagnostics
• Impact on the classroom
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Dunn & Dunn’s Model
Principle
• Individuals are capable of learning
• Individuals are unique
• All learners have strength's
• Learning environment and resources can enhance the response of
students with various learning styles

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 Dunn & Dunn’s Learning
Style Dimensions
• learning style is divided into 5 major strands called stimuli
• environmental- individuals’ preferences for the elements of sound, light, temperature, and
furniture or seating design
• emotional - Emotional - students’ levels of motivation, persistence, responsibility, and need
for structure
• Sociological - students’ preference for learning alone, in pairs, with peers, as part of a team,
with either authoritative or collegial instructors, or in varied approaches (as opposed to in
patterns)
• psychological - information-processing elements of global versus analytic and impulsive
versus reflective behaviours,
• physiological - examines perceptual strengths (visual, auditory, kinaesthetic or tactile), time-
of-day energy levels, and the need for intake (food and drink) and mobility while learning
• Four variables affect students’ preferences

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Variables and factors in the Dunn and Dunn learning-styles
model

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Howard Gardner
• Developed Theory of Multiple Intelligences in 1983
• Suggests that the traditional ideas of intelligence based on IQ testing are not encompassing
enough to fully describe one’s intelligence
• Proposed 8 intelligences located in different parts of the brain
• Verbal-linguistic (words)
• Logical-mathematical (numbers)
• Visual-spatial (pictures)
• Bodily-kinesthetic (body)
• Rhythmic-musical (music)
• Interpersonal (people)
• Intrapersonal (self)
• Naturalist (nature)
• These intelligences an either work alone or together with others
• Believed that education can be improved by addressing the multiple intelligences of a student

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 Application
Verbal-Linguistic

Preferred learning strategies What do these learners do best?

Characteristics
- Learn best by reading and taking - Read
- Excellent language skills
notes - Write
- Outstanding communicators
- Learn best by listening to lectures & - Talk
- Speak and write exceptionally well
discussions - Memorize information
- Benefit from computer use - Think in words

Instructional focus Preferred learning products

- Reading - Demonstrations
- Hearing information - Interviews
- Discussing topics - Oral reports
- Writing - Pamphlets
- Debating - Journals

Student profile: Nick is a typical Verbal-Linguistic learner. He loves a great debate and is the first one to ask the difficult
question for all to ponder. Nick has no qualms about speaking in front of the group – in fact, he revels these types of
opportunities. He wants to be a lawyer.

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 Logical-Mathematical

Characteristics Preferred learning strategies What do these learners do best?

- Able to recognize relationships and - Learn best through - Solve problem
patterns between concepts and experimentation and problem - Experiment
objects solving - Ask questions
- Logical thinkers - Research information
- Problem solver - Reason

Instructional focus Preferred learning products

- Classifying information - Models - Large scale drawing
- Categorizing information - Mobiles
- Working with the abstract - Computer programs
- Working with patterns and relationship - Charts
- Labelled diagrams

Student profile: Zachary is the textbook Logical-Mathematical learner. He is the first to solve difficult problems. Zachs
loves challenging assignments and can produce excellent charts and diagrams to illustrate data he has collected from
extensive research activities. He wants to go into engineering or drafting as a career.

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 Visual-Spatial

Preferred learning strategies What do these learners do best?

Characteristics - Learn best by visualizing and - Design
- Strong visual and spatial ideas mentally manipulating information - Draw
- Think in images - Ask Dream
- Very aware of surroundings - Create
- Construct

Instructional focus Preferred learning products

- Visualizing information - Bulletin boards - Charts
- Drawing - Graphs - Slide shows
- Working with pictures - Illustrated stories
- Murals
- Displays

Student profile: Jolie is a prime example of a Visual-Spatial learner. She loves to create visual displays of her learning
activities. Her productions are clear and often aid others n better understanding difficult concepts. Jolie wants to be an
architect.

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 Bodily-Kinesthetic

Preferred learning strategies What do these learners do best?

Characteristics
- Learn best by doing something - Physical activity
- Able to use one’s body skillfully
physically over reading or writing - Dancing
- Easily able to manipulate objects
about it - Arts and crafts
- Athletic
- Learn better by getting up and - Manipulating tools
- Keen sense of body awareness
moving around - Communicate well through body
language
Instructional focus Preferred learning products
- Processing information through body sensations - Plays - Pantomimes
- tactile manipulatives - Charades - Role playing
- Hands-on activities/experiments - Demonstrations
- Painting
- Experiments

Student profile: Kelli is a Bodily-Kinesthetic learner. She loves hands-on activities and is a very good athlete. Kelli excels
in demonstrating learning concepts and enjoys experimenting too. She plans to be a college athlete and go into
education. Kelli wants to focus on hands-on learning throughout hear teaching career.

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 Rhythmic-Musical

Characteristics Preferred learning strategies What do these learners do best?

- Musical - May learn best through listening to - Sing
- Appreciate a variety of musical lectures - Remember melodies
forms - Enjoy using songs or rhythms to - Pick up sound and rhythm
- Perceptive to rhythm, melody and learn or memorize information
pitch - May study better with music in the
background
Instructional focus Preferred learning products
- Listening to music - Instrumentals - Videos
- Singing - Audiovisuals
- Rhythmatic mnemonic devices - Raps
- Songs
- Poems

Student profile: Ian is a band club president. He plays the guitar and piano and can sing extremely well. Ian loves the
opportunity to create songs to describe learning concepts and isn’t afraid to perform his creative work in front of the
class. Ian wants to be a famous pop artist.

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 Interpersonal

Preferred learning strategies What do these learners do best?

Characteristics - Learn best by working with others - Interact with people
- Understand others quite well - Enjoy debates and discussion - Lead activities
- Great communication skills - Benefit from videoconferencing, - Communicate with others
- Emphatetic email, etc - Work in groups

Instructional focus Preferred learning products

- Cooperative group - Debates - TV programs
- Interviews with other people - Editorial essay
- Sharing information - Interviews
- Journals
- Plays

Student profile: Kathy is very empathetic. She understands the actions of others very well and works well with all
students. Kathy is very popular and is involved in many school clubs and activities. Her favourite learning activities
involve group work. She is the first to volunteer to help out. Kathy plans to be a nurse.

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 Intrapersonal

Preferred learning strategies What do these learners do best?

Characteristics - Learn best when allowed to - Set goals
- In touch with own self concentrate on the subject - Know own strengths and weaknesses
- Intuitive individually - Understand self
- Independent - Self-reflect

Instructional focus Preferred learning products

- Working alone - Diaries
- Self-paced individual projects - Journals
- Reflection of one’s work - Timelines
- Intrinsic motivation - Charts
- Learning centers

Student profile: Matt is very self-motivated. He is intrigued with scientific research. He likes to work alone to solve
problems. Matt keeps detailed records and is the first to volunteer to be the lead participant in group lab work. Matt
plans to go into medical research. We wants to find the cure for cancer.

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 Naturalist

Preferred learning strategies What do these learners do best?

- Learn best when the activity - Identify and classify environmental
Characteristics
involves collecting and analyzing components
- Nature lover
- Learn bet in outdoor settings
- Environmentally aware
- Enjoy kinaesthetic activities

Instructional focus Preferred learning products

- Classify - Field studies
- Analyze - Artifacts collections
- Leaf collections
- Field trips
- Dioramas

Student profile: Marc loves any outdoor activity. He has many collections consisting of leaves, rocks, fossils, plants, etc.
Marc has a special interest in medicinal plants. Someday, he plans to live and work in the Amazon rain forest.

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Neil Fleming’s VARK Model
• 4 modalities used to identify learning preferences
• Visual (V) – prefer to learn through seeing drawings, pictures, diagrams and
other visual teaching aids.
• Aural (A) - learn by listening to lectures, discussing materials and talking
through ideas.
• Read (R) - learn through interaction with written materials
• Kinesthetic (K) – learn through physical experiences such as touching,
performing activity, and manipulating objects
• Identifying our learning style will help us to be more strategic while
learning

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Introduction to Adult
Learning
• Andragogy concept introduced by Malcolm Knowles in the early
1970s
• Embedded under Adult Education field
• It has been alternately described as a set of guidelines (Merriam,
1993), a philosophy (Pratt, 1993), a set of assumptions (Brookfield,
1986), and a theory (Knowles, 1989b).
• A better understanding of the various learning theories will result in
better decisions regarding learning experiences, more predictable
outcomes, and more desirable results

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Andragogy in
Practice

Source: Knowles et al. (1998) With Knowledge We

Who Need to Know?
• Policy-level leader
• Change agent
• Learning specialist (instructors, curriculum builders, methods,
materials, media developers
• Consultant (experts, advocates)

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Learning Vs. Education
• “the acquisition of knowledge or skills through experience, study, or by being taught”
(New Oxford Dictionary, 2010).
• emphasizes the person in whom the change occurs or is expected to occur. Learning is the act or
process by which behavioral change, knowledge, skills, and attitudes are acquired (Boyd et al.,
1980, pp. 100–101)
• Education is an activity undertaken or initiated by one or more agents that is designed
to effect changes in the knowledge, skill, and attitudes of individuals, groups, or
communities
• emphasizes the educator, the agent of change who presents stimuli and reinforcement for learning
and designs activities to induce change.
• Learning is used to refer to (1) the acquisition and mastery of what is already known
about something, (2) the extension and clarification of meaning of one’s experience, or
(3) an organized, intentional process of testing ideas relevant to problems. In other
words, it is used to describe a product, a process, or a function

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…cont.
• Learning involves change. It is concerned with the acquisition of habits, knowledge, and
attitudes. It enables the individual to make both personal and social adjustments. Since
the concept of change is inherent in the concept of learning, any change in behavior
implies that learning is taking place or has taken place. Learning that occurs during the
process of change can be referred to as the learning process
(Crow and Crow, 1963, p. 1)
• Learning is a change in the individual, due to the interaction of that individual, and his
environment, which fills a need and makes him more capable of dealing adequately with
his environment.
(Burton, 1963, p. 7)
• There is a remarkable agreement upon the definition of learning as being reflected in a
change in behavior as the result of experience.
(Haggard, 1963, p. 20)
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…cont.
• Learning is a change in human disposition or capability, which can be
retained, and which is not simply ascribable to the process of growth.
(Gagné, 1965, p. 5)
• Learning is the process by which an activity originates or is changed
through reacting to an encountered situation, provided that the
characteristics of the change in activity cannot be explained on the
basis of native response tendencies, maturation, or temporary states
of the organism (e.g., fatigue, drugs, etc.)
(Hilgard and Bower, 1966, p. 2)

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 Andragogical Theory of
Adult Leaning
• Adults learn best in informal, comfortable, flexible, nonthreatening
settings (Knowles, 1950)
• Andragogy has been introduced by Dusan Savicevic, Yugoslavian
adult educator in 1967
• It meant the art and science of helping adults learn, and was ostensibly the
antithesis of the pedagogical model

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Pedagogy
• Derived from the Greek words paid, meaning “child” (the same stem
from which “pediatrics” comes) and agogus, meaning “leader of.”
• Literally means the art and science of teaching children
• teacher full responsibility for making all decisions about what will be
learned, how it will be learned, when it will be learned, and if it has
been learned.
• It is teacher-directed education, leaving to the learner only the
submissive role of following a teacher’s instructions

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 Pedagogy: Assumptions
about Learners
• Learners only need to know that they must learn what the teacher teaches if they want to pass and get promoted
The
need • they do not need to know how what they learn will apply to their lives
to
know

The • The teacher’s concept of the learner is that of a dependent personality

learn
er’s • Therefore, the learner’s self-concept eventually becomes that of dependent personality
self-
conc
ept
The • The learner’s experience is of little worth as a resource for learning; the experience that counts is that of the teacher, the textbook
role writer, and the audiovisual aids producer.
of • Therefore, transmittal techniques (e.g., lectures, assigned readings, etc.) are the backbone of pedagogical methodology.
expe
rienc
e

Read • Learners become ready to learn what the teacher tells them they must learn if they want to pass and get promoted
iness
to
learn

Orie • Learners have a subject-centered orientation to learning; they see learning as acquiring subject-matter content.
ntati • Therefore, learning experiences are organized according to the logic of the subject-matter content
on to
learn
ing

Moti
• Learners are motivated to learn by external motivators (e.g., grades, the teacher’s approval or disapproval, parental pressures)
vatio
n
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Defining Adult
• 4 viable definitions of adult
• Biological definition: biologically, we become adults when we reach the age at
which we can reproduce (i.e., in early adolescence).
• Legal definition: legally, we become adults when we reach the age at which
the law says we can vote, get a driver’s license, marry without consent, and
the like.
• Social definition: socially, we become adults when we start performing adult
roles, such as the role of full-time worker, spouse, parent, voting citizen, and
the like.
• Psychological definition: psychologically, we become adults when we arrive at
a self-concept of being responsible for our own lives, of being self-directing.

With Knowledge We
 Andragogical Model
The • Adults need to know why they need to learn something before undertaking to learn it
need
to
know

The
learn • Adults have a self-concept of being responsible for their own decisions, for their own lives
er’s
self-
conc
ept
The
role • Adults come into an educational activity with both a greater volume and a different quality of experience from that of youths
of
expe
rienc
e

• Adults become ready to learn those things they need to know and be able to do in order to cope effectively with their real-life
Read
iness situations
to
learn

• adults are life-centered (or task-centered or problem-centered) in their orientation to learning.

Orie
ntati • Adults are motivated to learn to the extent that they perceive that learning will help them perform tasks or deal with problems they
on to confront in their life situations.
learn
ing

• Adults are responsive to some external motivators (better jobs, promotions, higher salaries, and the like), but the most potent
Moti motivators are internal pressures (the desire for increased job satisfaction, self-esteem, quality of life, and the like).
vatio
n

With Knowledge We
Workplace Learning
• Adult learning in the workplace is a building block of lifelong learning
• The workplace had become a major learning provider
• Key premises of workplace curriculum
1. learning is taken as something that occurs as part of everyday thinking and
acting
2. a workplace curriculum needs to be founded on the contributions and
circumstances afforded by workplace environments
3. learning simply by 'just doing it' will not be sufficient
4. Workplaces are contested terrain
5. contributions of the school, college or university-based and workplace-
based components are complementary
With Knowledge We
Workplace Learning
Methods

With Knowledge We
 References
• Knowles, M. S., Holton III, E.F., & Swanson, R. A. (2015). The adult
learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource
development (8th Edition. Routledge

With Knowledge We
With Knowledge We