12

VECTORS AND
THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE
VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE

12.2
Vectors

In this section, we will learn about:

Vectors and their applications.
VECTOR

The term vector is used by scientists to

indicate a quantity (such as displacement
or velocity or force) that has both magnitude
and direction.
REPRESENTING A VECTOR

A vector is often represented by

an arrow or a directed line segment.

 The length of the arrow represents the magnitude

of the vector.

 The arrow points in the direction of the vector.

DENOTING A VECTOR

We denote a vector by either:

 Printing a letter in boldface (v)


 Putting an arrow above the letter ( v )
VECTORS

For instance, suppose a particle

moves along a line segment from
point A to point B.
VECTORS

The corresponding displacement vector v

has initial point A (the tail) and terminal point
B (the tip).

 We indicatethis
 by
writing v = AB .
VECTORS

Notice that the vector u = CD has the same
length and the same direction as v even
though it is in a different position.
 We say u and v are equivalent (or equal)
and write
u = v.
ZERO VECTOR

The zero vector, denoted by 0, has

length 0.

 It is the only vector with no specific direction.

COMBINING VECTORS

Suppose a particle moves from A to B.


So, its displacement vector is AB .
COMBINING VECTORS

Then, the particle changes direction,

and moves from B to C—with displacement

vector BC.
COMBINING VECTORS

The combined effect of these

displacements is that the particle
has moved from A to C.
COMBINING VECTORS

The resulting displacement vector AC
 
is called the sum of AB and BC .
We write:
  
AC  AB  BC
ADDING VECTORS

In general, if we start with vectors u and v,

we first move v so that its tail coincides with
the tip of u and define the sum of u and v
as follows.
VECTOR ADDITION—DEFINITION

If u and v are vectors positioned so the initial

point of v is at the terminal point of u, then
the sum u + v is the vector from the initial
point of u to the terminal point of v.
VECTOR ADDITION

The definition of vector addition is

illustrated here.
TRIANGLE LAW

You can see why this definition is

sometimes called the Triangle Law.
VECTOR ADDITION

Here, we start with the same vectors u and v

as earlier and draw another copy of v with
the same initial point as u.
VECTOR ADDITION

Completing the parallelogram,

we see that:
u+v=v+u
VECTOR ADDITION

This also gives another way to construct

the sum:
 If we place u and v so
they start at the same
point, then u + v lies
along the diagonal of
the parallelogram with
u and v as sides.
PARALLELOGRAM LAW

This is called the Parallelogram

Law.
VECTOR ADDITION Example 1

Draw the sum of the vectors a and b

shown here.
VECTOR ADDITION Example 1

First, we translate b and place its tail at the tip

of a—being careful to draw a copy of b that
has the same length and direction.
VECTOR ADDITION Example 1

Then, we draw the vector a + b starting at

the initial point of a and ending at the terminal
point of the copy of b.
VECTOR ADDITION Example 1

Alternatively, we could place b so it starts

where a starts and construct a + b by
the Parallelogram Law.
MULTIPLYING VECTORS

It is possible to multiply a vector

by a real number c.
SCALAR

In this context, we call the real

number c a scalar—to distinguish
it from a vector.
MULTIPLYING SCALARS

For instance, we want 2v to be the same

vector as v + v, which has the same direction
as v but is twice as long.

In general, we multiply a vector by a scalar

as follows.
SCALAR MULTIPLICATION—DEFINITION

If c is a scalar and v is a vector, the scalar

multiple cv is:

The vector whose length is |c| times the length

of v and whose direction is the same as v if
c > 0 and is opposite to v if c < 0.

 If c = 0 or v = 0, then cv = 0.
SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

The definition is illustrated here.

 We see that real

numbers work like
scaling factors here.

 That’s why we call

them scalars.
SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

Notice that two nonzero vectors are

parallel if they are scalar multiples of
one another.
SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

In particular, the vector –v = (–1)v has the

same length as v but points in the opposite
direction.

 We call it the negative

of v.
SUBTRACTING VECTORS

By the difference u – v of two vectors,

we mean:

u – v = u + (–v)
SUBTRACTING VECTORS

So, we can construct u – v by first drawing

the negative of v, –v, and then adding it to
u by the Parallelogram Law.
SUBTRACTING VECTORS

Alternatively, since v + (u – v) = u,
the vector u – v, when added to v,
gives u.
SUBTRACTING VECTORS

So, we could construct u by means of

the Triangle Law.
SUBTRACTING VECTORS Example 2

If a and b are the vectors shown here,

draw a – 2b.
SUBTRACTING VECTORS Example 2

First, we draw the vector –2b pointing in

the direction opposite to b and twice as long.
Next, we place it with its tail at the tip of a.
SUBTRACTING VECTORS Example 2

Finally, we use the Triangle Law to

draw a + (–2b).
COMPONENTS

For some purposes, it’s best to

introduce a coordinate system and
treat vectors algebraically.
COMPONENTS

Let’s place the initial point of a vector a

at the origin of a rectangular coordinate
system.
COMPONENTS

Then, the terminal point of a has coordinates

of the form (a1, a2) or (a1, a2, a3).

 This depends on whether our coordinate system

is two- or three-dimensional.
COMPONENTS

These coordinates are called

the components of a and we write:

a = ‹a1, a2› or a = ‹a1, a2, a3›

COMPONENTS

We use the notation ‹a1, a2› for the ordered

pair that refers to a vector so as not to confuse
it with the ordered pair (a1, a2) that refers to
a point in the plane.
COMPONENTS

For instance, the vectors shown here are


all equivalent to the vector OP  3, 2 whose
terminal point is P(3, 2).
COMPONENTS

What they have in common is that the terminal

point is reached from the initial point by a
displacement of three units to the right and
two upward.
COMPONENTS

We can think of all these geometric vectors

as representations of the algebraic vector
a = ‹3, 2›.
POSITION VECTOR

The particular representation OP from
the origin to the point P(3, 2) is called
the position vector of the point P.
POSITION VECTOR

In three dimensions, the vector


a = OP = ‹a1, a2, a3›
is the position vector of the point P(a1, a2, a3).
COMPONENTS

Let’s consider any other representation AB
of a, where the initial point is A(x1, y1, z1) and
the terminal point is B(x2, y2, z2).
COMPONENTS

Then, we must have:

x1 + a1 = x2, y1 + a2 = y2, z1 + a3 = z2
Thus,
a1 = x 2 – x 1 , a2 = y2 – y1, a3 = z2 – z1

 Thus, we have the following result.

COMPONENTS Equation 1

Given the points A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2),

the vector a with representation AB is:

a = ‹x2 – x1, y2 – y1, z2 – z1›

COMPONENTS Example 3

Find the vector represented by the directed

line segment with initial point A(2, –3, 4) and
terminal point B(–2, 1, 1).


 By Equation 1, the vector corresponding to AB
is:
a = ‹–2 –2, 1 – (–3), 1 – 4› = ‹–4, 4, –3›
LENGTH OF VECTOR

The magnitude or length of the vector v

is the length of any of its representations.

 It is denoted by the symbol |v| or║v║.

LENGTH OF VECTOR

By using the distance formula to compute


the length of a segment OP , we obtain
the following formulas.
LENGTH OF 2-D VECTOR

The length of the two-dimensional (2-D)

vector a = ‹a1, a2› is:

| a | a  a 2
1
2
2
LENGTH OF 3-D VECTOR

The length of the three-dimensional (3-D)

vector a = ‹a1, a2, a3› is:

| a | a  a  a
2
1
2
2
2
3
ALGEBRAIC VECTORS

How do we add vectors

algebraically?
ADDING ALGEBRAIC VECTORS

The figure shows that, if a = ‹a1, a2›

and b = ‹b1, b2›, then the sum is
a + b = ‹a1 + b1, a2 + b2›

at least for the case

where the components
are positive.
ADDING ALGEBRAIC VECTORS

In other words, to add

algebraic vectors, we add
their components.
SUBTRACTING ALGEBRAIC VECTORS

Similarly, to subtract vectors,

we subtract components.
ALGEBRAIC VECTORS

From the similar triangles in the figure,

we see that the components of ca are
ca1 and ca2.
MULTIPLYING ALGEBRAIC VECTORS

So, to multiply a vector by a scalar,

we multiply each component by that
scalar.
2-D ALGEBRAIC VECTORS

If a = ‹a1, a2› and b = ‹b1, b2›, then

a + b = ‹a1 + b1, a2 + b2›

a – b = ‹a1 – b1 , a2 – b2›

ca = ‹ca1, ca2›
3-D ALGEBRAIC VECTORS

Similarly, for 3-D vectors,

 a1 , a2 , a3   b1 , b2 , b3    a1  b1 , a2  b2 , a3  b3 

 a1 , a2 , a3   b1 , b2 , b3    a1  b1 , a2  b2 , a3  b3 

c a1 , a2 , a3    ca1 , ca2 , ca3 

ALGEBRAIC VECTORS Example 4

If a = ‹4, 0, 3› and b = ‹–2, 1, 5›,

find:

|a| and the vectors a + b, a – b, 3b, 2a + 5b

ALGEBRAIC VECTORS Example 4

|a|  4  0  3
2 2 2

= 25
=5
ALGEBRAIC VECTORS Example 4

a + b =  4, 0, 3 + 2, 1, 5
=  4 + (  2), 0 + 1, 3 + 5
=  2, 1, 8
ALGEBRAIC VECTORS Example 4

a  b =  4, 0, 3  2, 1, 5
=  4  (  2), 0  1, 3  5
= 6, 1, 2
ALGEBRAIC VECTORS Example 4

3b = 32, 1, 5
= 3(2), 3(1), 3(5)
= 6, 3, 15
ALGEBRAIC VECTORS Example 4

2a + 5b = 2 4, 0, 3  52, 1, 5
= 8, 0, 6  10, 5, 25
= 2, 5, 31
COMPONENTS

We denote:

 V2 as the set of all 2-D vectors

 V3 as the set of all 3-D vectors

COMPONENTS

More generally, we will later need to

consider the set Vn of all n-dimensional
vectors.

 An n-dimensional vector is an ordered n-tuple

a = ‹a1, a2, …, an›

where a1, a2, …, an are real numbers that are
called the components of a.
COMPONENTS

Addition and scalar multiplication are

defined in terms of components just as
for the cases n = 2 and n = 3.
PROPERTIES OF VECTORS

If a, b, and c are vectors in Vn and c and d

are scalars, then

1. a + b = b + a 2. a + (b + c) = (a + b ) + c
3. a + 0 = a 4. a + (  a) = 0
5. c(a + b) = ca + cb 6. (c + d )a = ca + da
7. (cd )a = c(da) 8. 1a = a
PROPERTIES OF VECTORS

These eight properties of vectors can

be readily verified either geometrically or
algebraically.
PROPERTY 1

For instance, Property 1 can be seen from

this earlier figure.

 It’s equivalent to the

Parallelogram Law.
PROPERTY 1

It can also be seen as follows for the case

n = 2:
a + b = ‹a1, a2› + ‹b1, b2›
= ‹a1 + b1, a2 + b2›
= ‹b1 + a1, b2 + a2›
= ‹b1, b2› + ‹a1, a2›
=b+a
PROPERTY 2

We can see why Property 2 (the associative

law) is true by looking at this figure and
applying the Triangle Law several times, as
follows.
PROPERTY 2

The vector PQ is obtained either by first
constructing a + b and then adding c or by
adding a to the vector b + c.
VECTORS IN V3

Three vectors in V3 play

a special role.
VECTORS IN V3

Let
i = ‹1, 0, 0›

j = ‹0, 1, 0›

k = ‹0, 0, 1›
STANDARD BASIS VECTORS

These vectors i, j, and k are called

the standard basis vectors.

 They have length 1 and point in the directions

of the positive x-, y-, and z-axes.
STANDARD BASIS VECTORS

Similarly, in
two dimensions,
we define:
i = ‹1, 0›
j = ‹0, 1›
STANDARD BASIS VECTORS

If a = ‹a1, a2, a3›, then we can write:

a   a1 , a2 , a3 
  a1 , 0, 0   0, a2 , 0   0, 0, a3 
 a1 1, 0, 0  a2 0,1, 0  a3 0, 0,1
STANDARD BASIS VECTORS Equation 2

a  a1i  a2 j  a3k
STANDARD BASIS VECTORS

Thus, any vector in V3

can be expressed in terms
of i, j, and k.
STANDARD BASIS VECTORS

For instance,

‹1, –2, 6› = i – 2j + 6k
STANDARD BASIS VECTORS Equation 3

Similarly, in two dimensions, we can

write:
a = ‹a1, a2› = a1i + a2j
COMPONENTS

Compare the geometric interpretation

of Equations 2 and 3 with the earlier
figures.
COMPONENTS Example 5

If a = i + 2j – 3k and b = 4i + 7k,
express the vector 2a + 3b in terms
of i, j, and k.
COMPONENTS Example 5

Using Properties 1, 2, 5, 6, and 7 of vectors,

we have:

2a + 3b = 2(i + 2j – 3k) + 3(4i + 7k)

= 2i + 4j – 6k + 12i + 21k
= 14i + 4j + 15k
UNIT VECTOR

A unit vector is a vector whose

length is 1.

 For instance, i, j, and k are all unit vectors.

UNIT VECTORS Equation 4

In general, if a ≠ 0, then the unit vector

that has the same direction as a is:

1 a
| u | a
|a| |a|
UNIT VECTORS

In order to verify this, we let c = 1/|a|.

 Then, u = ca and c is a positive scalar;

so, u has the same direction as a.

 Also,
UNIT VECTORS Example 6

Find the unit vector in

the direction of the vector
2i – j – 2k.
UNIT VECTORS Example 6

The given vector has length

| 2i  j  2k | 2  (1)  ( 2)
2 2 2

 9 3
 So, by Equation 4, the unit vector with
the same direction is:

1
3 (2i  j  2k )  32 i  13 j  32 k
APPLICATIONS

Vectors are useful in many aspects of

physics and engineering.

 In Chapter 13, we will see how they describe

the velocity and acceleration of objects moving
in space.

 Here, we look at forces.

FORCE

A force is represented by a vector because

it has both a magnitude (measured in pounds
or newtons) and a direction.

 If several forces are acting on an object,

the resultant force experienced by the object
is the vector sum of these forces.
FORCE Example 7

A 100-lb weight hangs from two wires.

Find the tensions (forces) T1 and T2
in both wires and their magnitudes
FORCE Example 7

First, we express T1 and T2

in terms of their horizontal and
vertical components.
FORCE E. g. 7—Eqns. 5 & 6

From the figure, we see that:

T1 = –|T1| cos 50° i + |T1| sin 50° j
T2 = |T2| cos 32° i + |T2| sin 32° j
FORCE Example 7

The resultant T1 + T2 of the tensions

counterbalances the weight w.

So, we must have:

T1 + T2 = –w
= 100 j
FORCE Example 7

Thus,

(–|T1| cos 50° + |T2| cos 32°) i

+ (|T1| sin 50° + |T2| sin 32°) j
= 100 j
FORCE Example 7

Equating components, we get:

–|T1| cos 50° + |T2| cos 32° = 0

|T1| sin 50° + |T2| sin 32° = 100

FORCE Example 7

Solving the first of these equations for |T2|

and substituting into the second,
we get:

| T1 | cos 50
| T1 | sin 50  sin 32  100
cos 32
FORCE Example 7

So, the magnitudes of the tensions are:

100
| T1 |  85.64 lb
sin 50  tan 32 cos 50

| T1 | cos 50
| T2 |  64.91 lb
cos 32
FORCE Example 7

Substituting these values in Equations 5

and 6, we obtain the tension vectors

T1 ≈ –55.05 i + 65.60 j

T2 ≈ 55.05 i + 34.40 j