Vector Algebra

Chapter 2

1
 Vectors
• Linear algebra is concerned with two kinds of
mathematical objects, “matrices” and “vectors.”

• We are already familiar with the basic ideas

about matrices, so we will introduce some of the
basic ideas about vectors.

• We will see that vectors and matrices are closely

related and that much of linear algebra is
concerned with that relationship.

2
 Geometric vectors
• Vectors can be represented in two dimensions (also called 2-
space) or in three dimensions (also called 3-space) by arrows.

• The direction of the arrowhead specifies the direction of the

vector and the length of the arrow specifies the magnitude.
Mathematicians call these geometric vectors.

• The tail of the arrow is called the initial point of the vector
and the tip the terminal point

3
 Geometric vectors
• Denote vectors in boldface type such as a, b, v, w, and x.

• Denote scalars in lowercase italic type such as a, k, v, w, and x.

• When we want to indicate that a vector v has initial point A

and terminal point B, then we will write
Animations
→
v = AB

4
 Geometric vectors
• Vectors with the same length and direction are said to be
equivalent.

Animations

• A vector to be determined solely by its length and direction,

equivalent vectors are regarded to be the same vector even
though they may be in different positions.
 Geometric vectors
• Equivalent vectors are also said to be equal, which we indicate
by writing v = w.

• The vector whose initial and terminal points coincide has

length zero, so we call this the zero vector and denote it by 0.

• The zero vector has no natural direction, so we will agree that

it can be assigned any direction that is convenient for the
problem at hand.

6
 Equality of vectors

Two vectors that have the same magnitude and same direction are said to be equal,
written a = b.

(A) Equal vectors ; (B)—(D) Different vectors

7
 Vector Addition
Parallelogram Rule for Vector Addition

If v and w are vectors in 2-space or 3-space that are positioned

so their initial points coincide, then the two vectors form
adjacent sides of a parallelogram, and the sum v + w is the
vector represented by the arrow from the common initial point of
v and w to the opposite vertex of the parallelogram.

Animations

8
 Vector Addition
Triangle Rule for Vector Addition

If v and w are vectors in 2-space or 3-space that are positioned so the

initial point of w is at the terminal point of v, then the sum v + w is
represented by the arrow from the initial point of v to the terminal
point of w.

• The sums v + w and w + v can be constructed by the triangle rule.

• This construction makes it evident that v + w = w + v and that the
sum obtained by the triangle rule is the same as the sum obtained
by the parallelogram rule.
9
 Vector Subtraction
The negative of a vector v, denoted by -v, is the vector that has
the same length as v but is oppositely directed and the
difference of v from w, denoted by w - v, is taken to be the sum
w – v = w + (- v).

10
 Vector Subtraction
The difference of 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 and 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 , defined by
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + (−𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴)
is the main diagonal of the parallelogram with sides 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 and −𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

The subtraction of two vectors

11
 Scalar Multiplication
• If v is a nonzero vector in 2-space or 3-space, and
if k is a nonzero scalar, then we define the scalar
product of v by k to be the vector whose length is
|k| times the length of v and whose direction is
the same as that of v if k is positive and opposite
to that of v if k is negative.

• If k = 0 or v = 0, then we define kv to be 0.

• (-1)v has the same length as v but is oppositely

directed.

12
 Parallel and Collinear Vectors
• Suppose that v and w are vectors in 2-space or 3-space with a common
initial point. If one of the vectors is a scalar multiple of the other, then the
vectors lie on a common line, so it is reasonable to say that they are
collinear.

• The terms parallel and collinear mean the same thing when applied to
vectors.

• Although the vector 0 has no clearly defined direction, we will regard it to

be parallel to all vectors when convenient.

13
 Associative law for addition
When we add three vectors, say u, v, and w, it does not matter
which two we add first
u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w

It follows from this that there is no ambiguity in the expression

because the same result is obtained no matter how the vectors
are grouped.

14
 Vectors in Coordinate Systems
• It is sometimes necessary to consider vectors
whose initial points are not at the origin.

• If denotes the vector with initial point P1(x1,y1)

and terminal point P2(x2,y2), then the components
of this vector are given by the formula

P1 P2 = ( x 2 − x1 , y 2 − y1 )

• The components of a vector in 3-space that has

initial point P1(x1,y1,z1) and terminal point
P2(x2,y2,z2) are given by P1 P2 = (x 2 − x1 , y 2 − y1 , z 2 − z1 )

15
 Definition
If n is a positive integer, then an ordered n-tuple
is a sequence of n real numbers (v1, v2 ,…,vn). The
set of all ordered n-tuples is called n-space and
n
is denoted by R .

16
 Definition
Vectors v = (v1,v2,…,vn) and w = (w1,w2,…,wn) in
n
R are said to be equivalent (also called equal) if

v1 = w1, v2 = w2 ,…, vn = wn

We indicate this by writing v = w.

17
 Basic Operations
• Define the operations of addition, subtraction, and scalar
n
multiplication for vectors in R .
• Perform these operations in R2 for simple illustration.
• If v = (v1,v2) and w = (w1,w2) then
v + w = (v1+w1,v2+w2) and kv = (kv1, kv2)

18
 Definition
n
If v = (v1,v2,…,vn) and w = (w1,w2,…,wn) are vectors in R
and if k is any scalar, then we define

1. v + w = (v1+w1,v2+w2, … ,vn+wn)
2. kv = (kv1, kv2, … , kvn)
3. -v = (-v1, -v2, … , -vn)
4. w - v = w + (-v) = (w1 - v1, w2 - v2, … , wn - vn)

19
 Example
If v = (1, -3, 2) and w = (4, 2, 1), then

1. v + w = (5, -1, 3)
2. 2v = (2, -6, 4)
3. -w = (-4, -2, -1)
4. v – w = v + (- w) = (-3, -5, 1)

20
 Theorem
n
If u, v and w are vectors in R and if k and m are scalars,
then:

a) u+v=v+u
b) (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
c) u+0=0+u=u
d) u + (- u) = 0
e) k(u + v) = k u + k v
f) (k + m) u = k u + m u
g) k(m u) = (km)u
h) 1u=u
21
 Theorem
n
If v is a vector in R and k is a scalar, then:

a) 0 v = 0
b) k 0 = 0
c) (-1) v = -v

22
 Definition
If w is a vector in Rn, then w is said to be a linear combination of
n
the vectors v1 ,v2 , … ,vr in R if it can be expressed in the form

w = k1v1 + k2v2 + … + krvr

where k1, k2 ,…, kr are scalars. These scalars are called the
coefficients of the linear combination.

In the case where r = 1, w = k1v1, so that a linear combination of

a single vector is just a scalar multiple of that vector.

23
 Norm of a vector
• The length of a vector v by the symbol v , which is read as
the norm of v, the length of v, or the magnitude of v (the
term “norm” being a common mathematical synonym for
length)

• By Pythagoras theorem, the norm of a vector (v1 ,v2) in R2 is

v = v12 + v 22

• Similarly, the norm of a vector (v1,v2,v3) in R3 is

v = v12 + v 22 + v32

24
 Definition
n
If v = (v1 ,v2 ,…,vn) is a vector in R , then the
norm of v (also called the length of v or the
magnitude of v) is denoted by v , and is
defined by the formula

v = v12 + v 22 +  + v n2

25
 Example
3
The norm of the vector v = (-3,2,1) in R is

v = (− 3)2 + 2 2 + 12 = 14

4
The norm of the vector v = (2,-1,3,-5) in R is

= 2 2 + (− 1) + 3 2 + (− 5) = 39
2 2
v

26
 Theorem
n
If v is a vector in R and if k is any scalar, then

a) v ≥ 0.
b) v =0 if and only if v = 0.
c) kv = k v.

27
 Unit Vector
• A vector of norm 1 is called a unit vector.
• Such vectors are useful for specifying a direction when length
is not relevant to the problem at hand.
• Obtain a unit vector in a desired direction by choosing any
nonzero vector v in that direction and multiplying v by the
reciprocal of its length.
1
u= v
v

• The process of multiplying a nonzero vector by the reciprocal

of its length to obtain a unit vector is called normalizing v.

28
 Example
Given 𝐚𝐚 = 2, −1 , form a unit vector in the same direction as 𝐚𝐚 and in the
opposite direction of 𝐚𝐚.

The magnitude of the vector a is:

𝐚𝐚 = 𝑎𝑎12 + 𝑎𝑎22 = 22 + (−1)2 = 5

Thus, a unit vector in the same direction as a is:

1 1 2 −1
𝐮𝐮 = 𝐚𝐚 = 2, −1 =( , )
𝐚𝐚 5 5 5

A unit vector in the opposite direction as a is:

2 1
−𝐮𝐮 = (− , )
5 5

29
 Example
Find the unit vector u that has the same
direction as v = (2,2,-1).

The vector v has length, v = 2 2 + 2 2 + (− 1)2 = 9 = 3

Thus, u=
1
v = (2,2,−1)
1
v 3

30
 Example
Normalize the vector w1 = (1,4,3) and w2 = (−2,1,3)

Solution:
Since w 1 = 1 × 1 + 4 × 4 + 3 × 3 = 26 and

w 2 = (−2) × (−2) + 1 × 1 + 3 × 3 = 14

thus, two vectors are normalized as follows:

1 1 1 1
w1 = (1,4,3) w2 = (−2,1,3)
w1 26 w2 14

31
 Standard unit vector
The unit vectors in the positive directions of the coordinate
axes are called the standard unit vectors.

2
• In R , i = (1,0) and j = (0,1)
• In R3, i = (1,0,0), j = (0,1,0) and k = (0,0,1)

n n
Generalize to R by defining the standard unit vectors in R
e1 = (1,0,0,…,0), e2 = (0,1,0,…,0), … , en = (0,0,0,…,1)

32
 Example
Linear Combinations of Standard Unit Vectors

(2,-3,4) = 2i – 3j + 4k

(7,3,-4,5) = 7e1 + 3e2 - 4e3 + 5e4

33
 Definition
n
If u = (u1 ,u2 ,…,un) and v = (v1 ,v2 ,…,vn) are points in R ,
then we denote the distance between u and v by u − v
and define it to be

u − v = (u1 − v1 ) 2 + (u 2 − v 2 ) 2 +  + (u n − v n ) 2

34
 Example
n
Calculating distance in R

If u = (1,3,-2,7) and v = (0,7,2,2),

then the distance between u and v is

u − v = (1 − 0) 2 + (3 − 7) 2 + (−2 − 2) 2 + (7 − 2) 2 = 58

35
 Definition
2 3
If u and v are nonzero vectors in R or R , and if θ is the
angle between u and v, then the dot product (also
called the Euclidean inner product) of u and v is
denoted by u ∙ v and is defined as

u ∙ v = u v cos θ

If u = 0 or v = 0, then we define u ∙ v to be 0.
The angle θ between u and v satisfies 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.

36
 Example
Find the dot product of the vectors u = (0,0,1) and v = (0,2,2).
The angle θ between u and v is π/4 radians = 45o.

The length of the vectors are u = 1 and v = 8

The cosine of the angle θ between them is cos(45  ) =

1
2

1
The dot product u ∙ v = u v cos θ = (1) x 8 x = 2.
2

37
 Definition
If u = (u1 ,u2 ,…,un) and v = (v1 ,v2 ,…,vn) are vectors in Rn,
then the dot product (also called the Euclidean inner
product) of u and v is denoted by and u ∙ v is defined by

u ∙ v = u1v1 + u2v2 + … + unvn

38
 Example
1
If 𝐚𝐚 = 10𝐢𝐢 + 2𝐣𝐣 − 6𝐤𝐤 and 𝐛𝐛 = − 𝐢𝐢 + 4𝐣𝐣 − 3𝐤𝐤, find 𝐚𝐚 • 𝐛𝐛
2

𝐚𝐚 • 𝐛𝐛 = 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏2 + 𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏3

1
= 10 − + 2 4 + −6 −3 = 21
2

39
 Theorem
n
If u, v, and w are vectors in R and if k is a scalar, then

a) u∙v=v∙u [Symmetry property]

b) u ∙ (v + w) = u ∙ v + u ∙ w [Distributive property]
c) k(u ∙ v) = (ku) ∙ v [Homogeneity property]
d) v ∙ v ≥ 0 and v ∙ v = 0 if and only if v = 0 [Positive property]

40
 Theorem
n
If u, v, and w are vectors in R and if k is a scalar, then

a) 0∙v=v∙0=0
b) (u + v) ∙ w = u ∙ w + v ∙ w
c) u ∙ (v – w) = u ∙ v – u ∙ w
d) (u – v) ∙ w = u ∙ w – v ∙ w
e) k(u ∙ v) = u ∙ (k v)

41
 Example
Calculating with Dot Products

(u – 2v) ∙ (3u + 4v)

= u ∙ (3u + 4v) – 2v ∙ (3u + 4v)
= 3(u ∙ u) + 4 (u ∙ v) – 6(v ∙ u) – 8(v ∙ v)
= 3 ||u|| – 2(u ∙ v) – 8 ||v||
2 2

42
 Example
The dot product of the vectors:

a) u = (0,0,1) and v = (0,2,2)

u ∙ v = (0)(0) + (0)(2)+(1)(2) = 2

b) u = (-1,3,5,7) and v = (-3,-4,1,0)

u ∙ v = (-1)(-3) + (3)(-4)+(5)(1)+(7)(0) = -4

43
 Remark
In the special case where u = v,

v ∙ v = v1v1 + v2v2 + + vnvn = ||v||

… 2

The length of a vector can be expressed in terms

of a dot product
v = v⋅v

44
 Example
Find the angle between a diagonal of a cube and one of its edges.

Solution
Let k be the length of an edge.
Let u1 = (k,0,0), u2 = (0,k,0) and u3 = (0,0,k).

Then the vector d = (k, k, k) = u1 + u2 + u3 is a diagonal of the cube.

u1 • d k2 1
The angle θ between d and the edge u1 satisfies cos θ = = =
u1 d k 3k 2 3

Hence, we have θ = cos −1  1  ≈ 54.74 

 3

45
 Theorem
n
If u and v are vectors in R , then

||u + v|| ≤ ||u|| + ||v||

46
 Proof

||u + v||2 = (u + v) ∙ (u + v) = (u ∙ u) + 2(u ∙ v) + (v ∙ v)

= ||u||2 + 2(u ∙ v) + ||v||2

≤ ||u||2 + 2|u ∙ v| + ||v||2  Property of absolute value

≤ ||u||2 + 2||u|| ||v|| + ||v||2  Cauchy – Schwarz inequality

= (||u|| + ||v||)2

47
 Theorem
Parallelogram equation for vectors
n
If u and v are vectors in R , then

||u + v||2 + ||u − v||2 = 2||u||2 + 2||v||2

Proof:

||u + v||2 + ||u − v||2 = (u + v) ∙ (u + v) + (u − v) ∙ (u − v)

= 2(u ∙ u) + 2(v ∙ v) = 2||u||2 + 2||v||2

Interpretation:
For any parallelogram, the sum of squares of the diagonals is equal to the sum of squares of its four sides.

48
 Theorem
n
If u and v are vectors in R with the Euclidean
inner product, then

4u ∙ v = ||u + v||2 − ||u − v||2

Proof:

||u + v||2 = (u + v) ∙ (u + v) = ||u||2 + 2(u ∙ v) + ||v||2

||u − v||2 = (u − v) ∙ (u − v) = ||u||2 − 2(u ∙ v) + ||v||2

49
 Orthogonality
Recall that the angle θ between two nonzero
n
vectors u and v in R is defined by the formula

 u⋅ v 
θ = cos 
−1

 ||u||||v|| 

It follows from this that

θ = π/2 radians if and only if u ∙ v = 0.

50
 Definition
• Two nonzero vectors u and v in Rn are said to be orthogonal
(or perpendicular) if u ∙ v = 0.

• We will also agree that the zero vector in Rn is orthogonal to

every vector in Rn.

• A nonempty set of vectors in Rn is called an orthogonal set if

all pairs of distinct vectors in the set are orthogonal.

• An orthogonal set of unit vectors is called an orthonormal set.

51
 Orthogonal Vectors
Angle between two nonzero vectors a and b.
 ϴ is acute if and only if a • b > 0
Orthogonal
𝜋𝜋
 ϴ is if and only if a • b = 0
2
vector
 ϴ is obtuse if and only if a • b < 0

ϴ ϴ ϴ

(a) 0 < ϴ < π/2 (b) ϴ = π/2 (c) π/2 < ϴ < π
cos ϴ > 0 cos ϴ = 0 cos ϴ < 0

52
 Example
Show that u = (-2,3,1,4) and v = (1,2,0-1) are
4
orthogonal vectors in R .

Solution
The vectors are orthogonal since
u ∙ v = (-2)(1) + (3)(2)+(1)(0)+(4)(-1) = 0

53
 Example
Show that the set S = {i, j, k} of standard unit
3
vectors is an orthogonal set in R .
Solution

We must show that all pairs of distinct vectors

are orthogonal
i∙j=i∙k=j∙k=0

54
 Example
To determine the angles between the following vectors are acute or obtuse or
perpendicular: u = (1,-2,3) , v = (-3,4,2), w = (3,6,3)

𝐮𝐮 = 𝐢𝐢 − 2𝐣𝐣 + 3𝐤𝐤 𝐯𝐯 = −3𝐢𝐢 + 4𝐣𝐣 + 2𝐤𝐤 𝐰𝐰 = 3𝐢𝐢 + 6𝐣𝐣 + 3𝐤𝐤

 𝐮𝐮 � 𝐯𝐯 = 1 −3 + −2 4 + 3 2 = −5

∴ The angle between u and v is obtuse since 𝐮𝐮 � 𝐯𝐯 < 0

 𝐯𝐯 � 𝐰𝐰 = −3 3 + 4 6 + 2 3 = 21

∴ The angle between 𝐯𝐯 and 𝐰𝐰 is acute since 𝐯𝐯 � 𝐰𝐰 > 0

 𝐮𝐮 � 𝐰𝐰 = 1 3 + −2 6 + 3 3 = 0

∴ The angle between u and w is perpendicular since 𝐮𝐮 � 𝐰𝐰 = 0

55
 Line and Plane
• The general equation of a line in R2 is given by
ax + by + c = 0
• The line is determined uniquely by its slope and one of its
points.

• The general equation of a plane in R3 is given by

ax + by + cz + d = 0
• The plane in R3 is determined uniquely by its “inclination”
and one of its points.

56
 Normal
• One way of specifying slope and inclination is
to use a nonzero vector n, called a normal,
that is orthogonal to the line or plane in
question.

• Both the line and the plane are represented

by the vector equation
n • P0 P = 0
where P is either an arbitrary point (x,y) on
the line or an arbitrary point (x,y,z) in the
plane.

57
 Example
• In R2, the equation 6(x - 3) + (y + 7) = 0 represents a line
through the point (3,-7) with normal n = (6,1).

3
• In R , the equation 4(x - 3) + 2(y - 0) - 5(z - 7) = 0
represents a plane through the point (3,0,7) with normal
n = (4,2,-5).

58
 Orthogonal Projection
• To “decompose” a vector u into a sum of two terms, one term being a
scalar multiple of a specified nonzero vector a and the other term being
orthogonal to a.

• If u and a are vectors in R2 that are positioned so their initial points

coincide at a point Q, then we can create such a decomposition as follows

 Drop a perpendicular from the tip of u to the line through a.

 Construct the vector w1 from Q to the foot of the perpendicular.
 Construct the vector w2 = u – w1.

59
Component of a on b
According to the distributive law, the components of a
vector a = 𝑎𝑎1 𝐢𝐢 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝐣𝐣 + 𝑎𝑎3 𝐤𝐤 in terms of the dot product can
be expresses as:
𝑎𝑎1 = a • i , 𝑎𝑎2 = a • j , 𝑎𝑎3 = a • k
Symbolically,
compi 𝐚𝐚 = a • i = 𝑎𝑎1 ,
compj 𝐚𝐚 = a • j = 𝑎𝑎2 ,
compk 𝐚𝐚 = a • k = 𝑎𝑎3
The component of a on an arbitrary vector b:
𝐚𝐚| 𝐛𝐛| cos𝜃𝜃 a • b 1
comp𝐛𝐛 𝐚𝐚 = = =a• b
|𝐛𝐛| |𝐛𝐛| |𝐛𝐛|
To find the component of a on b, we dot a with a unit
vector in the direction of b.
60
 Example
Let 𝐚𝐚 = 2𝐢𝐢 + 3𝐣𝐣 − 4𝐤𝐤 and 𝐛𝐛 = 𝐢𝐢 + 𝐣𝐣 + 2𝐤𝐤, Find comp𝐛𝐛 𝐚𝐚 and comp𝐚𝐚 𝐛𝐛

We first form a unit vector in the direction of 𝐛𝐛:

1 1
|𝐛𝐛| = (1)2 +(1)2 +(2)2 = 6, 𝐛𝐛 = 𝐢𝐢 + 𝐣𝐣 + 2𝐤𝐤
|𝐛𝐛| 6

1 1 3
comp𝐛𝐛 𝐚𝐚 = a • b = 2𝐢𝐢 + 3𝐣𝐣 − 4𝐤𝐤 • 𝐢𝐢 + 𝐣𝐣 + 2𝐤𝐤 = −
|𝐛𝐛| 6 6

Form a unit vector in the direction of 𝐚𝐚:

1 1
|𝐚𝐚| = (2)2 +(3)2 +(−4)2 = 29, 𝐚𝐚 = 2𝐢𝐢 + 3𝐣𝐣 − 4𝐤𝐤
|𝐚𝐚| 29

1 1 3
comp𝐚𝐚 𝐛𝐛 = b • 𝐚𝐚 = (𝐢𝐢 + 𝐣𝐣 + 2𝐤𝐤) • 2𝐢𝐢 + 3𝐣𝐣 − 4𝐤𝐤 = − .
|𝐚𝐚| 29 29
61
Orthogonal Projection of a onto b
The projection of a vector a in any of the directions
determined by i , j, k is simply the vector formed by
multiplying the component of a in the specific direction
with a unit vector in that direction.

Proj𝒊𝒊 𝐚𝐚 = (comp𝐢𝐢 𝐚𝐚)𝐢𝐢 = (𝐚𝐚 • i)i = 𝑎𝑎1 𝐣𝐣

Proj𝒋𝒋 𝐚𝐚 = (comp𝐣𝐣 𝐚𝐚)𝐣𝐣 = (𝐚𝐚 • j)j = 𝑎𝑎2 𝐣𝐣

Proj𝒌𝒌 𝐚𝐚 = (comp𝐤𝐤 𝐚𝐚)𝐤𝐤 = (𝐚𝐚 • k)k = 𝑎𝑎3 𝐤𝐤

1 a•b
Proj𝐛𝐛 𝐚𝐚 = (comp𝐛𝐛 𝐚𝐚) b = b
|𝐛𝐛| b•b

62
 Example
Let 𝐚𝐚 = 4𝐢𝐢 + 𝐣𝐣 and 𝐛𝐛 = 2𝐢𝐢 + 3𝐣𝐣, Find the projection of a onto b, 𝐢𝐢. 𝐞𝐞. proj𝐛𝐛 𝐚𝐚 .

We first find the component of a on b. Since |𝐛𝐛| = (2)2 +(3)2 = 13, we have

1 1 11
comp𝐛𝐛 𝐚𝐚 = a • b = 4𝐢𝐢 + 𝐣𝐣 • 2𝐢𝐢 + 3𝐣𝐣 =
|𝐛𝐛| 13 13

Hence,

1 11 1 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
proj𝐛𝐛 𝐚𝐚 = (comp𝐛𝐛 𝐚𝐚) b =( ) 2𝐢𝐢 + 3𝐣𝐣 = 𝐢𝐢 + 𝐣𝐣
|𝐛𝐛| 13 13 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

63
 Orthogonal Projection
Let v and w be non-zero vectors. Then, the orthogonal projection
of v onto w is given by
vw v  w
projw v =
 w =
 w
w  w  2

 w 

 v⋅w 
Then, the vector v −   w is orthogonal onto w.
2 
 ||w|| 
 v⋅w 
v −  w
2 
 ||w|| 

 v⋅w 
 w
2 
 ||w|| 
64
 Example
Let v = (-1,-2,2) and w = (1,1,1). Find the orthogonal projection of
v onto w and also a vector which is orthogonal to w.

Solution The orthogonal projection of v onto w is

 v⋅w  (−1)(1) + (−2)(1) + (2)(1)  − 1 − 1 − 1

 
2 
w = (1,1,1) =  , , 
 ||w||  (1)(1) + (1)(1) + (1)(1)  3 3 3 

The following vector is orthogonal to w

 v⋅w   − 1 − 1 − 1  − 2 − 5 7 
v −  
2 
w = (- 1,-2,2 ) −  , , = , , 
 ||w||   3 3 3   3 3 3

65
 Theorem
2
• In R , the distance D between the point P0(x0,y0) and
the line is ax + by + c = 0 is
ax0 + by0 + c
D=
a2 + b2
3
• In R , the distance D between the point P0(x0,y0,z0)
and the plane is ax + by + cz + d = 0 is
ax0 + by0 + cz0 + d
D=
a2 + b2 + c2

66
 Proof
3 2
Proof for R case. R will be similar.
Let Q(x1,y1,z1) be any point in the plane:
ax + by + cz + d = 0.
Position the normal n = (a,b,c) so that its initial point is
at Q. The distance D is equal to the length of the
orthogonal projection of QP0 onto n. Thus,
QP0 • n a( x0 − x1 ) + b( y 0 − y1 ) + c( z 0 − z1 ) ax0 + by 0 + cz 0 + d
D= = =
n a2 + b2 + c2 a2 + b2 + c2

67
 Example
Find the distance D between the point (1,-4,-3)
and the plane 2x - 3y + 6z = -1.

Solution: The distance is

(2)(1) + (-3)(-4) + (6)(-3) + 1 | −3 | 3

D= = =
2 2 + (−3) 2 + 6 2 7 7

68
 Definition
3
If u = (u1 ,u2 ,u3) and v = (v1 ,v2 ,v3) are vectors in R ,
then cross product u x v is the vector defined by

u x v = (u2 v3 - u3 v2 , u3 v1 - u1 v3 , u1 v2 - u2 v1)

or, in determinant notation,

i j k
u2 u3 u1 u3 u1 u2
u× v = u1 u2 u3 = i− j+ k
v2 v3 v1 v3 v1 v2
v1 v2 v3
69
 Example
Find u x v, where u = (1,2,-2) and v = (3,0,1)
Method 1

 2 −2 1 −2 1 2 
u× v =  ,− ,  = (2, −7, −6)
0 1 3 1 3 0

Method 2

i j k
2 -2 1 -2 1 -2
u × v = 1 2 -2 = i− j+ k = 2i − 7 j − 6k
0 1 3 1 3 1
3 0 1

70
 Theorem
3
If u, v, and w are vectors in R then

a) u ∙ (u x v) = 0
b) v ∙ (u x v) = 0
c) ||u x v||2 = ||u||2||v||2 – (u ∙ v)2
d) u x (v x w) = (u ∙ w) v – (u ∙ v) w
e) (u x v) x w = (u ∙ w) v – (v ∙ w) u

71
 Example
u x v is perpendicular (orthogonal) to u and to v

Consider the vectors u = (1,2,-2) and v = (3,0,1).

Then u x v = (2,-7,-6). We have

u ∙ (u x v) = (1)(2) + (2)(-7) + (-2)(-6) = 0

v ∙ (u x v) = (3)(2) + (0)(-7) + (1)(-6) = 0

Hence, u x v is perpendicular (orthogonal) to both u and to v.

72
 Theorem
3
If u, v, and w are vectors in R and k is any scalar
then

a) (u x v) = -(v x u)
b) u x (v + w) = (u x v) + (u x w)
c) (u + v) x w = (u x w) + (v x w)
d) k (u x v) = (k u) x v = u x (k v)
e) ux0=0xu=0
f) uxu=0

73
 Example
Consider the vectors
i = (1,0,0), j = (0,1,0) and k = (0,0,1)
These vectors each have length 1 and lie along the coordinate axes.
0 0 1 0 1 0

i× j =  , − ,  = (0,0,1)
1 0 0 0 0 1 

There is no trouble obtaining the following results

i×i = 0 j× j = 0 k × k = 0
i× j= k j× k = i k×i = j
j × i = −k k × j = − i i × k = − j
Tricks: 𝐢𝐢 𝐣𝐣 𝐤𝐤 𝐢𝐢 𝐣𝐣
Negative × Positive 74
 Remark
• The following graph is helpful for remembering these
results.
• Referring to this diagram, the cross product of two
consecutive vectors going clockwise is the next vector
around, and the cross product of two consecutive vectors
going counterclockwise is the negative of the next vector
around.

75
 Theorem
3
If u and v are vectors in R , then ||u x v|| is equal to the
area of the parallelogram determined by u and v.

Proof: If θ denotes the angle between u and v, then

||u x v||2 = ||u||2 ||v||2 - ||u||2 ||v||2 cos2θ = ||u||2 ||v||2 sin2θ

Since 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, if follows that sin θ ≥ 0, we have

||u x v|| = ||u|| ||v|| sin θ

76
 Example
Find the area of the parallelogram determined by the
vectors u = (1,3,6) and v = (4,2,3).

Solution
The cross product of u and v is
i j k
u × v = 1 3 6 = −3i + 21j − 10k
4 2 3

The required area of parallelogram is

u × v = − 3i + 21j − 10k = (− 3)2 + 212 + (− 10)2 = 23.45

77
 Example
Find the area of the parallelogram determined by the points
P1(1,1,1), P2(1,2,3), P3(3,1,1) and P4(3,2,3).

Solution

The area of the parallelogram determined by the vectors P1 P2 and P1 P3 .

Then, we have P1 P2 = (0,1,2) and P1 P3 = (2,0,0).
i j k
It follows that P1 P2 × P1 P3 = 0 1 2 = 4 j − 2k
2 0 0
Hence, area = P1 P2 × P1 P3 = 4 2 + 2 2 = 20

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78
 Example (Re-visit)
Find the area of the parallelogram determined by the points
P1(1,1,1), P2(1,2,3), P3(3,1,1) and P4(3,2,3) by using the vectors
P2 P4 and P3 P4 .
Solution

The area of the parallelogram determined by the vectors P2 P4 and P3 P4.

Then, we have P2 P4 = (2,0,0) and P3 P4 = (0,1,2) .
i j k
Remark:
It follows that P2 P4 × P3 P4 = 2 0 0 = −4 j + 2k
The area can be obtained
0 1 2 by any two vectors with a
Hence, area = P2 P4 × P3 P4 = 4 2 + 2 2 = 20 common point.

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79
 Example
Find the area of the triangle determined by the
points P1(2,2,0), P2(-1,0,2), and P3(0,4,3).

Solution

The area A of the triangle is one half of the area of the parallelogram
determined by the vectors P1 P2 and P1 P3.
Then, we have P1 P2 = (-3,-2,2) and P1 P3 = (-2,2,3).

It follows that P1 P2 × P1 P3 = (-10,5,-10)

Consequently, we can verify that
P1 P2 × P1 P3 = (15) =
1 1 15
A=
2 2 2
80
 Definition
If u, v, and w are vectors in 3-space, then
u ∙ (v x w)
is called the scalar triple product of u, v, and w.
Remark:
u1 u 2 u 3
 v 2 v3 v1 v3 v1 v2 
u ⋅ ( v × w) = u ⋅ 
 w w i − w w j+ w k  = v1 v 2 v3
 2 3 1 3 1 w2 
w1 w2 w3

81
 Example
Calculate the scalar triple product u ∙ (v x w) of the vectors
u = 3i - 2j - 5k, v = i + 4j – 4k, w = 3j + 2k

Solution
3 -2 − 5
u ⋅ ( v × w) = 1 4 − 4
0 3 2
4 -4 1 -4 1 4
= 3⋅ − ( − 2) + ( − 5)
3 2 0 2 0 3
= 60 + 4 − 15 = 49

82
 Theorem
a) The absolute value of the determinant
u1 u2
v1 v2
is equal to the area of the parallelogram in 2-space determined by the
vectors u = (u1,u2) and v = (v1,v2).

b) The absolute value of the determinant

u1 u2 u3
v1 v2 v3
w1 w2 w3

is equal to the volume of the parallelepiped in 3-space determined by

the vectors u = (u1,u2,u3), v = (v1,v2,v3) and w = (w1,w2,w3).

83
 Remark
If V denotes the volume of the parallelepiped
determined by vectors u, v, and w, then

 volume of parallelepiped 
V = 
determined by u, v, and w 
= height × (area of base)
u • (v × w )
= v × w = u • (v × w )
v×w

Since three vectors not in the same plane determine a

parallelepiped of positive volume, it follows that |u ∙ (v x w)|= 0
if and only if the vectors u, v, and w lie in the same plane.
84
 Example
Find the volume of the parallelepiped determined by the vectors
u = (3,2,1), v = (4,2,1) and w = (2,3,2).

Solution
3 2 1
Since u ⋅ ( v × w ) = 4 2 1 = −1
2 3 2

Then the volume equals to absolute value of |u ∙ (v x w)| is one

cubic unit.

85
 Theorem
If the vectors u = (u1,u2,u3), v = (v1,v2,v3) and w =
(w1,w2,w3) have the same initial point, then they
lie in the same plane if and only if

u1 u2 u3
u ⋅ ( v × w ) = v1 v2 v3 = 0
w1 w2 w3

86
 Example
Let u = (3,2,3), v = (1,1,2) and w = (2,1,1) have the
same initial point, show that they lie in the same
plane.

Solution
u1 u2 u3 3 2 3
u ⋅ ( v × w ) = v1 v2 v3 = 1 1 2 = 0
w1 w2 w3 2 1 1
They lie in the same plane.
87
Linear independence

88
 Alternative vector notation
n
A vector u = (u1,u2,…,un) in R can also be written
in matrix notation as a column matrix.

 u1 
u 
 or u = [u1 u 2  u n ]
2
u=
T


 
u n 

89
 Linear dependence
Definition

A set of vectors {v1, v2, …, vp} is said to be linearly dependent,

if there are some scalars, c1, c2, …, cp be not all zero, such that

c1v1+ c2v2 + …+ cpvp = 0 (1)

In such case, Equation (1) is called a linear dependent relation

among v1, v2, …, vp.

90
 Example
Consider the vectors v1 = [1 -1 2]T, v2 = [ -2 3 1] T and v3 = [-1 3 8] T in R3.

•Those three vectors are linearly dependent, because 3v1 + 2v2 + (-1)v3 = 0.
•It is also clear that any one of these three vectors may be expressed as a linear
combination of the other two.
•For instance, we have v3 = 3v1 + 2v2.

Remark

From the previous example, although the vectors v1,v2,v3 are linearly dependent, there
exists a subset of {v1,v2,v3} which are linearly independent, for instances, {v1,v2}.

91
 Definition
Vectors which are not linearly dependent are called linearly independent.
In other words, {v1, v2, …, vk} are linearly independent if and only if

t1v1+ t2v2 + …+ tkvk = 0 ⇒ t1 = t2 = …= tk = 0

Therefore,
tj = 0 for j = 1, 2, … , k

92
 Remark
• In fact, if v1, v2, …, vk are vectors in Rn, we denote by A the n × k matrix whose jth
column equals to the vector vj for every j.
• Clearly, t1v1+ t2v2 + …+ tkvk = 0 if and only if At = 0, where t = [t1 t2 … tk ]T.
• Therefore, v1, v2, …, vk are linearly dependent if and only if the system of
homogeneous equations At = 0 has nontrivial solutions. The matrix form of the
equation t1v1+ t2v2 + …+ tkvk = 0 is

 t1   0 
t   0 
[ v1 v2  vk ]  2 =  
    
   
t k   0 

• Therefore, if we wants to check that linear dependence of vectors, we may set up a

homogenous system and check the existence of nontrivial solutions.

93
 Example
Are v1 = [1 2 5]T, v2 = [1 0 0]T and v3 = [-2 1 3]T in R3 linearly independence
or linearly dependence?

Solution: We consider the possibility that c1v1 + c2v2 + c3v3 = 0

This is Ac = 0 with
1 1 − 2   c1 
A = 2 0 1  and c = c 2 
5 0 3  c3 

Since det(A) = −1 ≠ 0, Ac = 0 has trivial solution ONLY!!!

Therefore, those three vectors are linearly independent.

94
 Example
1   4  2
     
Let v 1 = 2, v 2 = 5, v 3 = 1
3 6 0

a) Determine if {v1, v2, v3} is linearly dependent or independent;

b) If possible, find a vector dependence relation among v1, v2, v3.

95
Solution:
(a) {v1, v2, v3} is linearly dependent if there exist scalars c1, c2 ,c3 not all zero,
such that c1v1 + c2v2 + c3v3 = 0 ….. (*)
We solve all possible solutions of equation (*) first, Re-writing, we have
1   4  2  0  c1 + 4c 2 + 2c3 = 0
c1 2 + c 2 5 + c3 1  = 0 or 
2c1 + 5c 2 + c3 = 0
3 6 0 0  3c + 6c = 0
 1 2
Applying row operations to the augmented matrix, we obtain:
1 4 2 0 − 2 R1 + R2 → R2 1 4 2 0
  −3 R1 + R3 → R3  
2 5 1 0 ~ 0 −3 −3 0
3 6 0 0 0 −6 −6 0
1
− R2 → R2 1 4 2 0 − 4 R2 + R1 → R1 1 0 − 2 0
3   6 R2 + R3 → R3  
~ 0 1 1 0 ~ 0 1 1 0
0 −6 −6 0 0 0 0 0

Therefore, c1 = 2t, c2 = -t, c3 = t where c3 is a free variable and t is any real number.
Hence, {v1, v2, v3} is linearly dependent.

(b) Let c1 = 2, c2 = -1, c3 = 1, we have the required dependence relation.

96
 Theorem
If v1, v2, …, vk are vectors in Rn, where k > n,
then v1, v2, …, vk are linearly dependent.

Proof:

Let A = [v1 v 2  v k ] .
To show v1, v2, …, vk are linearly dependent, we consider a homogeneous
system At = 0.
Since the number of equation n is less than the number of unknowns k, we can
conclude that the homogeneous system At = 0 has infinitely many solutions.
Hence, v1, v2, …, vk are linearly dependent.

97
 Example
1  2  3  − 1
The four vectors v 1 = 1, v 2 = 5, v 3 = 6, and v 4 = − 4
1 8  0  5 

are linearly dependent because the homogeneous system

 t1 
1 2 3 − 1    0
1 5 6 − 4 t 2  = 0
  t   
1 8 0 5   3  0
t 4 
must have nontrivial solution.

98
 Example
1  1  2
 2  4  − 3
Let v 1 =  , v 2 =  , and v 3 =  
 3 6  − 5
     
 
1  
1 2

Determine if {v1, v2, v3} is linearly dependent or independent.

99
Solution: {v1, v2, v3} is linearly independent, if the following vector equation has only the
trivial solution c1v1 + c2v2 + c3v3 = 0 ….. (*)
 c1 + c 2 + 2c3 = 0
2c + 4c − 3c = 0
 1 2 3
We solve all possible solutions of Eqn(*). Re-writing Equation(*), we have: 
3c1 + 6c 2 − 5c3 = 0
Applying row operations to the augmented matrix, we obtain:  c1 + c 2 + 2c3 = 0

1 1 2 0 − 2 R1 + R2 → R2 1 1 2 0 1 1 2 0
  −3 R1 + R3 → R3   12 R2 → R2  
2 4 − 3 0 − R1 + R4 → R4 0 2 − 7 0 0 1 − 7 2 0
~ ~ 
3 6 − 5 0 0 3 − 11 0 0 3 − 11 0
     
1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
11
1 0 11 0
2 1 0 11
20 − 2 R3 + R1 → R1 1 0 0 0
− R2 + R1 → R1
    7 R + R →R  
− 3 R2 + R3 → R3 0
 1 − 7 2 0 − 2 R3 → R3 0 1 − 7 2 0  2 3 2 2 0 1 0 0
~ ~ ~
0 0 − 1 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
     
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Converting back to a system of equations, we have

Hence, Equation (*) has only the trivial solution, and {v1, v2, v3} is linearly independent.

100
 Orthogonal and Orthonormal Set
Definition

Two vectors v and w are said to be orthogonal if v ∙ w = 0.

For example, (1,-1,2) and (-1,0,½) are orthogonal to each other

because (1,-1,2) ∙ (-1,0,½) = (1)(-1) + (-1)(0) + (2)(½) = 0

Note: The zero vector 0 is orthogonal to any vector.

101
 Definition
A set of vectors {v1, v2 , …, vk} is said to be an orthogonal set of
vectors, if these vectors are mutually orthogonal to each other, i.e.,
vi ∙ vj = 0, whenever i ≠ j.

102
 Example
 0  1  1 
  0  ,  0 
Show that 1,      is a set of orthogonal vectors.
 0  1 − 1 
 

Solution: 0  1
1 • 0 = (0)(1) + (1)(0) + (0)(1) = 0
   
0 1
0   1 
1 •  0  = (0)(1) + (1)(0) + (0)(−1) = 0
   
0 − 1
1  1 
0 •  0  = (1)(1) + (0)(0) + (1)(−1) = 0
   
1 − 1

Hence, three vectors form an orthogonal set.

103
 Example
1 1   2
1  2  3
Let x =  , y =  , z =   . Is {x, y, z} an orthogonal set?
1  2 1 
    

1  
1 6 
Solution:

Since x ∙ y = 1+2+2+1 = 6 ≠ 0.

Therefore, {x, y, z} does not form an orthogonal set.

104
 Definition
An orthogonal set of vectors {v1, v2 , …, vk} is said to be
orthonormal, if all these vi ’s are unit vectors.

It is clear that every orthogonal set of nonzero vectors can be

normalized to an orthonormal set of vectors.

105
 Example
Let u = (1,1,1,1), v = (-1,1,1,-1) and w = (-2,1,-1,2).
Is {u, v, w}

a) an orthogonal set or an orthonormal set?

b) linearly dependent or independent?

106
 Solution
(a) The inner products are as follows:

u • v = (1)(-1) + (1)(1) + (1)(1) + (1)(-1) = 0,

u • w = (1)(-2) + (1)(1) + (1)(-1) + (1)(2) = 0,
v • w = (-1)(-2) + (-2)(1) + (1)(-1) + (-1)(2) = 0.

{u, v, w} forms an orthogonal system, but it is not an orthonormal system, because u • u = 4.

(b) Suppose that for some real numbers a, b, c, we have au + bv + cw = 0. Then,

0 = u • (au + bv + cw) = a(u • u) + b(u • v) + c(u • w) = a(u • u)  a = 0

0 = v • (au + bv + cw) = a(v • u) + b(v • v) + c(v • w) = b(v • v)  b = 0
0 = w • (au + bv + cw) = a(w • u) + b(w • v) + c(w • w) = c(w • w)  c = 0

Hence, {u, v, w} is linearly independent.

107
 Theorem
Let {v1, …, vk} be an orthogonal set of nonzero vectors.
k
v • vi
1. If v = ∑ ci vi , then ci =
i =1 vi
2
for any i = 1, …, k.

2. Those vectors v1, …, vk are linearly independent.

108
 Proof
1. Let v = c1v1 + c2v2 + ... + ckvk.
Then, v․vi = (c1v1 + c2v2 + ... + ckvk)․vi = c1 (v1․vi) + … + ck (vk․vi)
= c1(v1․vi) + …+ ck(vk․vi) = ci (vi․vi)

v • vi v • vi
Hence, ci = =
vi • vi vi
2

2. Suppose that we have scalars λ1 ,λ2 , λk , such that

λ1v1 + λ2 v 2 +  + λk v k = 0
Then v i • (λ 1v 1 + λ 2 v 2 +  + λ k v k ) = 0
λ 1 (v i • v 1 ) +  + λ k (v i • v k ) = 0
λ i (v i • v i ) = 0 for i = 1,2, , k .
λ i = 0 for i = 1,2, , k .

Hence, v1, …, vk are linearly independent.

109
 Example
1 1 1
Let u1 = (1,1,1,1), u2 = (-1,1,1,-1) and u3 = 10
(-2,1,-1,2).
2 2

a) Is {u1, u2, u3} an orthonormal set?

b) Is it linearly independent?

110
 Solution
(a) The inner products between any two vectors are:

u1 • u1 = 1; u2 • u2 = 1; u3 • u3 = 1;
u1 • u2 = 0; u1 • u3 = 0; u2 • u3 = 0;

Hence, the system is orthonormal.

(b) As the system is orthonormal, it is orthogonal and is linearly independent.

111