SURVEY OF CENTRAL AFRICA

• Central Africa, sometimes referred to as Middle

Africa, defines a portion of the African continent
South of the Sahara Desert, East of Western Africa,
and West of the Great Rift Valley. It straddles
(strado) the Equator and is drained largely by the
Congo River system.
• Geopolitically, the United Nations, when
categorizing geographic sub-regions, defines Central
Africa as consisting of the following countries:
Cont…….
• the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville),
• the Central African Republic,
• Angola and
• the Democratic Republic of the Congo
(Kinshasa);
• Gabon is usually included along with the
Central African Republic because of their
common historical ties, both of these countries
having once been part of
French Equatorial Africa.
Cont…….
• Rwanda and
• Burundi, although they are located east of the
East African Rift System, which forms the
eastern divide of the Congo basin, are also
often considered part of the region because of
their long administrative connections with the
former Belgian Congo (now Congo [Kinshasa]).
• The island republic of São Tomé and Príncipe,
off the Atlantic coast of Gabon, is also included
in the region.
Cont…………
• However, term Central Africa is also used to denote
the area comprised in the two Rhodesia and
Nyasaland. Since these territories are some distance
from the geographical centre of Africa. Therefore,
the countries of
• Zambia,
• Zimbabwe,
• Mozambique and
• Malawi
• historically are considered as part of this region
 The region is divided into three parts:
1) East Africa and the Rift Valley
The countries included in this region includes
• Burundi and
• Rwanda,
2) Rain Forests
Central Africa includes the
• Central African Republic,
• Congo,
• São Tomé, and Principe, and
• Gabon.
The largest, most populous country in Central Africa is the
Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).
Cont…….
3) South-Central Africa
• The countries included in this region include
• Zambia,
• Mozambique and
• Malawi.
• Most of the in this sub region countries are
landlocked, or have no direct access to a
coast.
 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL AFRICA
• The most notable geographic feature of Central Africa
including the followings:
–Rivers: the most important rivers of the region are:
• The Congo River: The name River Congo originated
from the Kingdom of Kongo which was located on
the southern bank of the river.
• The kingdom in turn is named for the Bantu
population, in the 17th century.
• The names in Kongo possibly derive from a word for
a public gathering or tribal assembly. It implies a
public gathering and that it is based on the root
konga, 'to gather'.
Cont…….
• The Congo River (also known as the Zaire
River). The name Zaire is from a Portuguese
adaptation of a Kikongo word nzere ("river").
• It is a major waterway in Central Africa is
located in an equatorial area and flows into the
Atlantic Ocean.
• It is the second largest river in the world
by discharge (after the Amazon).
• The Congo River’s sources are in the highlands
and mountains with the East African Rift, also
Lake Tanganyika and River Mweru.
Cont…….
• The Congo River flows through the countries
of Congo and also the Democratic Republic of
Congo within the central Africa, but its
tributaries drain huge parts of land in Angola,
Zambia, Central Africa and Cameroon.
Tanzania, Zambia, Burundi, Rwanda.
• Most of the population and empire in Central
Africa lie along this parts of the River valley,
and all the cultural and historical sites in
Central Africa are found along river banks.
Zambezi River
 (also spelled Zambeze and Zambesi) is the
fourth-longest river in Africa, the longest East
flowing river in Africa and the largest flowing into the
Indian Ocean from Africa.
 Its source is in the wetlands of the Mwinilunga
District of North-western Zambia, near the border
where Zambia, Angola and the Congo meet.
 The Zambezi flows through six countries. it rises in
Zambia and flows through eastern Angola, along the
eastern border of Namibia and the northern border
of Botswana, then along the border between Zambia
and Zimbabwe to Mozambique, where it crosses the
country to empty into the Indian Ocean.
The Limpopo River
• The Limpopo River the term Limpopo is the modified
version of the original Speedy name diphororo tša meetse,
meaning ″gushing strong waterfalls".
• The Limpopo River rises in central Southern Africa, and
flows generally eastwards to the Indian Ocean.
• The Limpopo is the second largest river in Africa. It serves
as a border for separating South Africa to the Southeast
from Botswana to the northwest and Zimbabwe to the
north.
• The plateau between the rivers Zambezi and Limpopo, in
southeast Africa, offers rich opportunities for human
settlement. Its grasslands make excellent grazing for cattle.
The tusks of dead elephants provide an easy basis for a
trade in ivory.
The Congo Basin:
• is the main geographic feature of Central Africa and
differs from most other parts of the Sub-Saharan Africa
because it has more humidity since within the basin is a
rain forest.
• There is much more rain in Central Africa than that of
the other regions. All these made the people to engage
themselves full in agriculture that gave them good yields.
• Also the area had enough wild animals plus flora and
fauna. These made the inhabitants not to depend only
on agriculture but also hunting and gathering to
substitute on what they obtained from agriculture.
These additional activities went on assuring people with
enough food.
Southern Plateaus and Basins

• Southern Africa has fertile farmland, valuable

natural resources, and abundant wildlife.
• The area was very rich in minerals such as copper
and gold. Such items, together with the question of
being armed with vital metallurgical knowledge,
made some societies like the Mashona wealthier
enough to being accepted as rulers
The Rift Valley

• The Great Rift Valley is a name given to the continuous

geographic trench. That runs from Lebanon's Beqaa Valley in
Asia to Mozambique in South Eastern Africa.
• The Southern section of the Rift valley hosts the Lake Malawi
, itself the third deepest freshwater body in the World and
separating the Nyassa plateau of Northern Mozambique
from Malawi until it ends in the Zambezi valley.
• Some parts of Central Africa lie within the Rift Valley
(eastern Rwanda and Northeastern Burundi, the Western Rift
Valley north of the Virunga Mountains
• This created Lake Kivu; its waters discharge to the south,
through the Ruzizi (Rusizi) River gorge into Lake Tanganyika,
one outlet of which links the lake with the Lualaba River and
thus the Congo
The vegetation

• The peculiar character of the landscape of Central

Africa is due to the great extent of its highlands
and the frequently alternating woods and
savannas. Here we find the baobab and the plants
characteristic of the savannas of the central
plateaus.
• The dry tropical forest covers the southern Kwango
and Katanga (Shaba) plateaus in Congo (Kinshasa)
but exists only in shreds north of the Equator, in the
Central African Republic.
Climates
• Central Africa is characterized by hot and wet climates
on both sides of the Equator, resulting in intense, heavy
precipitation.
• There is no serious dry season, but in the extreme East
and West there are two months (July and August) of
lower rainfall.
• North and South of the equatorial strip the dry season
increases in severity with latitude. It is driest in the
Northern Hemisphere in January (when the area
receives dry Saharan air masses) and in the Southern
Hemisphere in July; the season lasts nearly seven
months in the far northern part of the Central African
Republic and in far southern Congo (Kinshasa).
 THE PEOPLING OF CENTRAL AFRICA

This theme intends to explain:

• The groups of people found in Central Africa and
• Where they came from
• The schools of thought that tried to explain the
origins of all the groupings of people who are now
living in this region
The schools of thought that tried to explain origins of
the races, languages, cultures and their ethnic divisions
in central Africa, are under two categories namely,
• The colonial scholars and
• Post-colonial scholars.
 The Colonial Scholars on the peopling of Central Africa

• The colonial scholars who tried to give explanations

on the origins of the people who are now living in
central Africa were the colonial anthropologists.
• In their explanations, they are stating that the races
found in central Africa are of different types:
• Some having their origins in some parts of Africa
• Others came from South-West Asia and South-
East Asia.
 THE VIEWS OF CHARLES G. SELIGMANON THE PEOPLING OF CENTRAL AFRICA

•  Charles G. Seligman (1930) being one of those

colonial anthropologists, had studied African
societies in 1920s and came up with the findings
that, there were three main races found in Central
Africa and Africa as a whole.
• Those racial groupings included what he called:
• Bushmen,
• Hamites and
• The Negroes
 The Bushmen
• They were the earliest or the original inhabitants of
Central Africa. Seligman in supporting this
argument sites the discovery of what he calls the
Bushmen rock paintings in some parts of Zimbabwe
in Central Africa.
• The life of Bushmen for many centuries as
depended heavily on imitating from the successful
ways of living practiced by the hamates who had
spread to other parts of Africa from North Africa
and the Negroes who had spread to other parts of
Africa from West Africa.
 Hamates
• These were second races as Seligman puts. The Hamates from his
suggestion, originated from South-West Asia in the Middle-East.
• After moving from their homeland, the Hamates entered first in
North Africa and North-East Africa first since the 32nd Century-BC.
• From there through migration they later spread into other parts of
East Africa, central Africa and Africa as a whole during the pre-
Christian era.
• Seligman keeps on saying, the Hamates are said to belong to the
European nature or race and as such, they were the more civilized
people in Africa.
• They are represented by people such as the people of ancient
Egypt, the Nubians, the Galla, the Oromo and the Somali. Others
included the Tuaregs and the Berbers of the Sahara desert and the
Fulani or Fulbe of West Africa.
 Negroes
• The third races as Seligman puts were the Negroes,
• Seligman says, their original homeland was North-East
Asia.
• The Negroes from North-East Asia in unknown century
in BC-times, landed first along the coast of West Africa.
• Thereafter, through migration, at the beginning of the
Christian era, they spread into different parts of East
Africa, Central Africa and the whole of African continent.
• Examples of the people belonging to this race are the
people from Nigeria, Ghana and Guinea Conakry such as
the Yoruba, Ashanti, Malinke, the Mandinka and the
Mande.
 The result of the migrations

• As a result of the migrations of both the Hamites and

the Negroes into different parts of Africa, Seligman
says, it became possible for Central Africa to have
the populations of people existing today. According
to him, this became possible due to the following:
– The Bushmen, who were the original inhabitants of the
region, were either assimilated (absorbed) by these
immigrants or were pushed out of the regions.
• That made only a small group of the Bushmen to
remain in Central Africa for example the San and the
Pygmies. All these before being absorbed into the
cultures and languages of their neighbours, spoke
the click languages.
Cont………

– There was a mixture of these immigrants and also with the

Bushmen in Central Africa that led to intermarriage among
these three races.
• Out of these intermarriages, the couples in which the
Negro blood predominated produced the people who
became known as the Bantu.
• The mixture in which the Hamitic blood predominated,
produced the people known as the Nilotes.
– There was also a mixture of the Nilotes and pure Hamites
produced the people who became known as the Nilo-
Hamites or Half-Hamites.
• The Nilo-hamites according to Seligman, are represented
in central Africa by the Bahima most of whom are found
in Uganda and the Batutsi of Burundi, Rwanda and Buha.
 THE VIEWS OF G.W HUNTINGFORD ON THE PEOPLING
OF CENTRAL AFRICA
• Another colonial anthropologist who tried to explain the
peopling of Central Africa is G.W Huntingford (1963).
• This writer in 1940s conducted a research concerning the
populations of central Africa.
• Out of the research made, Huntingford came up with the
explanations that, the present inhabitants of central
Africa may be categorized into what he calls six ethnic
groups of races. They include:
– The Bushmen.
– The Symbiotic Hunters.
– The Negroes.
– The Hamites.
Cont….

– The Nilotes (the Nile valley people).

– The Bantu (who are the mixture of the Bushmen,
Negroes, Hamites and other elements).
• From the analysis given out by Huntingford, Bushmen and
Symbiotic hunters were the people who shared the
common economic activities of hunting wild animals and
gathering of natural produce.
• They were also similar in the aspect of depending on what
they used to manufacture and use in hunting. For example,
while the Bushmen were dependent on bows and arrows as
weapons needed in hunting, the Symbiotic hunters
depended on iron implements which they used to
manufacture after acquiring that skill from their neighbours
such as the Nilotes and the Bantu.
GROUP OF PEOPLE FOUND IN CENTRAL AFRICA

• The Pigmies
– These little red and black Pigmy peoples do not have
villages at all.
– The Pigmy people are not so dark-skinned as the
other races of Central Africa, and they are very small,
not so high as an ordinary man’s shoulder.
– They are all hunters, and each man wanders with his
wife and children wherever he chooses. They live by
hunting with a bow and arrow.
– The Pigmy man respects the chief whose village he
settles in, but he does not fight for him or serve him
as the other people do in his village
 THE KHOIKHOI: (PASTORAL SOCIETIES IN CENTRAL AFRICA)
• The Khoikhoi by definition were the brown or yellow-
skinned people who largely adopted pastoralism
instead of hunting and gathering or growing of crops
through agriculture.
• The Khoikhoi are also taken as another group of people
belonging to stone-age people because they owned no
iron technology. They differentiated themselves from
the hunting and gathering societies by living as
pastoralists.
• The animals they domesticated included cattle and
sheep. This activity made the Khoikhoi not to rely on
what the nature could give them rather; they depended
on what the animals they kept could offer them.
 Characteristics of the Khoikhoi

• The Khoikhoi were characterized by living a

nomadic life kin searching the areas with good
pasture, good water and the areas which were free
from tsetse-flies for their animals.
• Secondly, they also hunted wild animals at the
same time gathering some natural produce in order
to supplement the animal products they used to get
from livestock
• Thirdly, physically in most cases, the Khoikhoi
resembled the San only that the Khoikhoi were a
beat taller than the San and a little dark.
 Origins of the Khoikhoi.
• The Khoikhoi who are now living in Central Africa had
their origins in the Southern Africa as well as Eastern
Africa.
• They are said to have started to arrive in Central
Africa since the 10th century-AD.
• From the existing archaeological evidence given out
by Ogutu and Miguda (1993), ancestors of the
Khoikhoi had their first homeland in East Africa and
particularly in the Great Lakes region.
• It was from here that some of them moved
southwards to the large parts of Central Africa as
well as Southern Africa.
 Organizations of the Khoikhoi.

• The pastoral Khoikhoi like the hunters and gatherers of Central

Africa, were living in the organizations which had to shape their
behavior. Such organizations were at the levels of political, social
and economic aspects.
• Politically,
–the Khoikhoi organized themselves into clans made up of men
and women who were said to have been born by one ancestor.
–Sometimes, several clans used to unite and that union normally
led to formation of ethnic groups. Each of these ethnic groups
was living together into either a camp or a village.

• As days went on, these ethnic groups grew into tribes so that up
to a time when the white men arrived in Central Africa, there
were about twelve of these tribes.  
Cont…..
• Their examples were such as the Groning Haiqua,
the Groning Haikona, the Gorachonqua, the
Kochoqua, the Choinoqua, the Gouriqua, the Inqua
and the Chariguniqua.
• Each of these tribes before the intrusion of the
white men, was independently controlling life under
a chief.
• This chief was assisted by the council in leading his
people.
• The council was made up of a chief himself as a
chairman; then all the clan heads.
 The major functions of this council were

– To formulate and bring law and order in the clans

that made up a given tribe,
– To strengthen inter-clan relations and the
relations of the existed tribes and camps.
– Each of the tribes with all these leadership
functions was made up of people between 600
and 2500 only. So, these Khoikhoi tribes were not
a large as we know the tribes today
 Social organizations of the Khoikhoi
• Socially,
• the Khoikhoi had families made up of the husband,
wife/wives and children.
– They all performed the tasks related to pastoralism based
on the cattle culture or sheep culture.
– These families also participated in hunting of wild animals
and gathering of natural produce to supplement the
products obtained out of the livestock they kept.

Religiously,
the Khoikhoi believed in the life after death.
They for instance believed that the soul of the dead person
became a ghost after his or her burial
Cont……

• That ghost could act humanly or as an animal to the

relatives left on earth depending on what such people
did to appease the dead soonest after dying.
• If sacrifices were offered to him, his ghost could act
humanly while if such sacrifices were not offered, the
ghost could act as an animal towards the left relatives
and caused different calamities such as sicknesses,
deaths floods, dropping of stars and sun eclipses.
• These sacrifices were to be performed under the advice
and supervision of the magicians and witch-doctors.
• The sacrifices involved slaughtering a sheep, an ox or a
cow and sprinkling the blood of a given animal to the
expected victims.
 Economic organizations of the Khoikhoi
• Economically,
– The Khoikhoi relied heavily on the domesticated animals
namely, cattle and sheep.
– Livestock gave them meat and milk. Milk in particular,
was their steeple foodstuff.
– Their livestock also gave them skins and hides to make
clothing.
– The Khoikhoi also used their animals for transport
purposes. By 1487, reports of the Portuguese who had
arrived in Central Africa state that, these Africans were
riding their oxen that carried the house-hold goods such
as utensils, mats, poles for a construction of new huts in
the established new camps
Cont….
– They also hunted wild animals and collected the natural
produce. They for instance collected honey which was
mostly used for brewing of beer.
– The Khoikhoi also fished seals from the water bodies
with these water creatures.
– They engaged themselves in trade. In that trade, the
Khoikhoi supplied cattle to the Portuguese and later to
the Dutch.
– They got from such foreigners, copper ornaments, iron
bracelets, the knives and glass beads.
– The trade between the Khoikhoi and these foreigners was
strong in 1660s because by this time, both the
Portuguese as well as the Dutch were in Central and
Southern Africa.
 THE BANTU
(THE MIXED FARMING SOCIETIES IN CENTRAL AFRICA)
• This is the fourth of the major language groups in
Central Africa.
• Many historians, who have tried to theorize on the
Bantu genesis, seem to agree that, ancestors of the
Bantu emerged as a language group in the
savannah region of the present-day border
between eastern Nigeria and Cameroon in West
Africa during the pre-Christian era.
• it was between 3000 and 2000-BC when the
development of the original Bantu language took
place.
Cont……..
• Starting from 2000-BC the split between the proto-
Bantu (the original Bantu) and other related languages
of the people who were living in the border between
eastern Nigeria and Cameroon occurred making the
proto-Bantu to keep on possessing their own language
which is believed to be the ancestor of the Bantu
languages spoken today.

• It is from there that the Bantu-speakers later populated

the savannah lands of east and central Africa during
the first millennium-BC.
• Others reached as far as Southern Africa as well as
Northern Africa within the same period.
Cont…..
• Murdock (1959) and Wills (1973) suggest that, the Bantu
populated the above mentioned Bantu Africa regions from
Congo basin by passing through two main routes.
• The first ran Southwards and was responsible in populating
the savannah regions of Central and Southern Africa.
• The second route ran Eastwards. It consequently populated
the Great Lakes region and the rest of other regions of
Eastern Africa and Northern Africa.

• The eastward route was a bit sophisticated as far as the

question of populating areas was concerned. For instance,
apart from being responsible in populating the regions
above, it as well populated Central Africa.
Cont….
• Today, the Bantu population is estimated at more than 300
million.
• One example of the Bantu who populated Central Africa
from Congo basin was the Pre-Luba group called by the
early Portuguese to arrive in that region as Maravi. These
people after migrating from Congo basin, they followed the
eastward route making them to populate at first, the east
and west of Lake Tanganyika. That is, the Inter-Lacustrine
region.
• The Maravi people by the 15th century-AD reached Nyasa-
land (now Malawi) and populated that territory before any
other Bantu groups to reach over there.
• It was out of the name Maravi that the present-day Malawi
which carries the name of Nyasa-Land was derived.
Cont……

• From the Maravi people, several Bantu tribes were

developed in Central Africa most of whom are now living
in Malawi.
• In the 18th century-AD for example, a tribe known as
Chewa/Chewa was developed as a portion which had split
from the original Maravi people. The tribe was and is still
found in the west of the present-day Malawi.
• Another tribe known as Nyanja had also split from the
original Maravi in the same century. This tribe remained
along Lake Nyasa which in Central Africa is known as Lake
Malawi.
• Nyanja means Lake People. So, they were called as Nyanja
to signify that they were the people living along the lake.
Cont……..
• Along from the original Maravi, there was a
development of the people known as Mang’anja.
They are at present living in Blantyre and
specifically in Ncheu district.
• In Malawi there was also a development of a tribe
known as Nsenga. It was a tribe developed out of
the intermarriage between the natives and the
Maravi groups.
Other Bantu tribes from east Africa
• Apart from the above mentioned tribes which were
originating from the Maravi group, Malawi was as well
populated by other Bantu tribes from different parts of East
and Central Africa after the Bantu dispersion that occurred
at Katanga or Congo basin in particular.
• They are such as the Bemba, Lala, Lenje, the Yao, the
Makwa and the east coast tribes.
• These east coast tribes are traditionally said to have come in
Central Africa from the North in the present-day Tanzania
during the first millennium-AD.
• Most of these tribes which were originally found in Malawi
are at the moment found even in other Central African
countries like Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
• Good examples are the Chewa, Nsenga and the Bemba.
Cont……..
• Another important group of the Bantu that populated
Central Africa from the Congo basin (Katanga) was that of
the Luba people.
• The Luba after dispersing from the Congo basin, settled
firstly in the west of Lake Victoria between the 10th and 12th
centuries-AD.
• After that the Luba left the region they had settled and
migrated to Central Africa. Upon arriving in Central Africa,
they initially occupied Malawi and Zambia.
• According to Wills (1973), their name Luba may have its
origin from the Yoruba people of West Africa.
• That is to keep on indicating that the Bantu had their original
homeland in a border between Eastern Nigeria and
Cameroon in West Africa.
Cont…….

• By the 16th century, the Luba in migrating into

Central Africa had reached the Bushimaie and
Lualaba rivers.
• From the Luba when they were in Central Africa,
tribes such as Lala, Lenje, Soli and Ila found in the
west of Luangwa river, were developed.
• All populated Central Africa and they are now found
in different countries of this region of Africa.
 Southward route direction.

• Central Africa was also populated by the Congo basin

through the southward route direction.
• That route resulted into the existence of tribes such as
the Tonga (found in the Central African plateau), the
Shona (who are occupying the large part of Zimbabwe),
the Luyi, which means the river people (are occupying
the upper Zambezi river valley) the Subia and the Mashi
(found in the plains of upper Zambezi river valley).
• In Central Africa also lived the Mambari people who
became developed when the Portuguese introduced
Slave-trade in the region from the 16th century
onwards.
• The first Bantu dispersion at Congo basin furthermore
became responsible in supplying other tribes in Central
Africa like the Lozi, Lovale, Lunda, the Shila and the Bemba
• The Bemba on the other hand, have been with a historical
tradition saying, by 550-AD the proto-tribe from which
they later emerged, was living in a place called Kole in the
plateau of Northern Angola. It was from that area that the
dispersion into other parts of Central Africa took place.
• The Lunda on their side, are said to have sprang from the
Luba territory. By the end of the 16th century-AD, they
were occupying the area between Kasai River and Lake
Tanganyika. From there, they later spread in so many other
parts of Central Africa.
 
PEOPLE FROM SOUTH AFRICA.

• Together with the populations that Central Africa

received from the Congo basin, still there were others
who came from South Africa.
• They included the Ndebele, the Kololo and the
Nguni/ngoni-speaking people.
• They arrived in this midst region of the continent
during the 19th century-AD as refugees who had run
Shaka’s rule which was full of brutality and wars that
led to disturbances and many other sufferings.
• Each of these groups of people settled and
established different systems of political
administration in different countries of Central Africa.
Cont…..
• In Zimbabwe for instance, the Ndebele imposed
their political rule over the Mashona firstly, under
Mzilikazi and later under his son, Lobengula. The
rule of these people had put down the former
Mwenemutapa Empire which was operating under
the Mashona political leaders.
• To sum up, the Bantu-speaking people finalized the
whole question of populating Central Africa. Two
centres of Bantu dispersion were responsible in
that process. The Centres included Katanga (the
Congo basin) and South Africa.
Cont….

• While the Congo basin supplied large part of the Bantu

found in Central Africa, South Africa supplied few when
compared to the work done by the Congo Basin.
• The Congo basin supplied many of the Bantu found in
Central Africa because they arrived in the region from
both of the routes used in the dispersion i.e. the
Southward and Eastward routes.
• They were in many tribes or Bantu language groups.
South Africa on the other hand, as already stated,
supplied few of the populations found in this region but
who were very influential at political, military and social
capabilities. For Example, the Ndebele and the Nguni
 ORGANIZATIONS OF THE BANTU

• The Bantu were organized at the levels of social,

political and economic aspects.
• Socially,
– they were organized into families, clans and religions.
These families, clans and religions were performing
their responsibilities among the people who had
established permanent settlements in villages
–  According to Tindall (1971), Families were the
organizations made up of father, his children and
wives.
– All were living in a homestead having the huts with
walls made of poles plastered with daga (clay soil) and
roofs thatched with grass.
Cont…….
• Most Central African tribes as Tindall (1971)
remarks, used to build round huts except the Yao
who built the rectangular huts learned from the
East African coast where that tribe had contacts
since the 17th century.
• There were also some huts made up of stone walls
especially among the Mashona before the 19th
century.
• Building of all these types of huts was a
responsibility of both sexes.
• Clans as another cluster of organization among the
Bantu were the social organizations made up of
members who claimed descent from a common
ancestor and were distantly related.
• Tindall states that, members of one clan shared for
instance, a common clan name which often was a name
of an animal.
• There were as well some strict rules that regulated
behavior among members of the same clan. For
example, marriage between members of the same clan
was strictly forbidden.
• There were two basic systems in the clan organizations
patrilineal and matrilineal.
religious level

• At the religious level, the Bantu in Central Africa were

polytheistic in character. They believed in many Gods.
• They worshipped such goods in order to solve some
problems they could not solve in their own ability.
• They also believed in the after-life in the sense that,
they believed on a new life for someone after dying
from earth.
• As a result, they worshipped gods along big rivers,
lakes, big trees, big mountains, big forests and wide
flat-lands.
• They as well worshipped their dead relatives and
ancestors.
Politically

• Politically, the Central African Bantu were organized

under a tribe. Each tribe was under a chief and
sometimes, one chief could be a head of some tribes
depending on the military power his kingdom had
against other tribes.
• The chiefs, whose military power was stronger,
conquered the neighboring tribes and ruled them.
• Normally a chief occupied a hereditary office in the
sense that, he entered into power by inheriting the
throne from the former.  
• He performed many responsibilities such as to work as
a royal, a priest and a judicial judge of different
criminals in the kingdom.
Cont…..

• He also acted as a guardian of the tribal lands because he could

organize war against the enemies who thought of taking such
land
• Here, some chiefs because of holding powers over wide areas,
appointed sub chiefs and headmen to assist them in
administering their kingdoms.
• Among the Karanga and the Shona, chiefs were for example
known as Mwenemutapa.
• They were known as Mambo among the Rozwi and Litunga in
Lozi kingdom.
 
• Generally, a chief among the Central African Bantu was taken as
a father of the whole tribe or the tribes found in his kingdom.
economic level,

• At the economic level, the Central African Bantu

were the mixed farmers.
• In the first place, they were the agriculturalists
growing crops such as millet, maize, sorghum, rice
and legumes.
• They also kept cattle, goats and sheep.
• There were those who specialized in iron smelting
and got more other requirements by exchanging the
iron implements they manufactured with other
goods from their neighbours.
• Furthermore, there are those who specialized in
trade for example, the Yao.
Cont……..

• The Bantu women in Central Africa involved

themselves in many economic activities one of which
was pottery. The pots manufactured by these women
were of two types but each with different sizes
depending on the functions it was designed to
accomplish.
• Another important economic activity performed by the
Bantu women was to brew local beer out of corn. This
programme of bewaring was into existence for many
years in Central Africa.
• Among the Mashona, this activity became so valued
that a good wife that men needed was the one who
was very much skillful in that economic department.
CENTRAL AFRICA: FROM EARLY BEGINNINGS TO THE FORMATION
OF THE WORLD

ORIGINS AND EXPANSION OF THE LUBA STATES

• The Luba are the Bantu-speaking people who are

believed to have established their first permanent
settlements in the Katanga area (Congo basin) after
migrating from a border between Eastern Nigeria and
Cameroon.
• From what Davidson Basil and Roland Oliver are
reporting, the Luba Bantu-speaking people were the
first Bantu grouping to form the state in the Congo
basin
Cont…….
• thereafter, provided knowledge, foundation and an
influence of forming many other states among the
Bantu who populated Central Africa from that area
• One reason verifying that the states formed by the
Luba in Congo influenced formation of states in many
parts of Central Africa, is the fact that Congo basin was
a centre for the Bantu dispersion that made Malawi,
Zambia, Zimbabwe, Angola and other countries of
Central Africa to be populated by the Bantu.
• Another reason was that the Luba became the first
individuals to develop the knowledge of administering
people with their activities in the Congo basin before
any other people to do that in this area.
Cont…..

• The Mashona starting from the 12th century-AD had

formed the Great Zimbabwe and in 1450-AD created an
empire called Mwenemutapa Empire.
• This empire continued to exist until when it was
conquered by the Nguni-speaking people from South
Africa when they invaded Central Africa in the 19th
century-AD.
• Formation of a state took place from 1500 AD due to
following factors
– Congo basin in which the Luba people lived was an open
glass land with adequate rainfall, rivers and enough soil
fertility. All these made the Luba to engage themselves
full in agriculture that gave them good yields.
Cont..

– The area had enough wild animals plus flora and

fauna. These made the inhabitants not to depend
only on agriculture but also hunting and gathering to
substitute on what they obtained from agriculture.
These additional activities went on assuring people
with enough food.
– The Luba engaged themselves in pastoralism based
on cattle and goat keeping. Such livestock supplied
the Luba with meat milk and hides for various uses.
The animal hides for example were used as wearing
also for people to sleep on. Out of these livestock
manure which was good for fertilizing soil for
agricultural purposes was obtained.
Cont…

– Congo basin was reach in minerals such as iron and

copper. Availability of these minerals made the Luba to
make various tools such as weapons which were used in
conquering the weak societies so as to rule them. Some
tolls manufactured facilitated agricultural activities and
clearing areas for people’s settlements. Above all most of
the tools manufactured were used as trade items in a
process of generating wealth.
– Existence of trade. The Luba developed trade among
themselves as a result of having goods they produced from
agriculture, pastoralism and crafts works. From 1570’s the
internal trade became more advantageous because it was
transformed into being the international trade. This took
place as a result of the Portuguese who had participated in
trade from that time onwards.
• Introduction of new crops. In the 15th cassava
groundnuts maize and tobacco became introduced
as new crops in the Congo basin. The Portuguese
and some western African slave traders from the
Americas are believed to have introduced such
crops in that area. Presence of these crops
improved peoples diet, increased food supply
among people and part of these crops were used as
trade items. The food supply which resulted from
these crops led to an increase of population. That
increase called for formation of state to resolve
peoples’ conflicts.
Cont….
• Good leadership and efforts of some personalities.
Individual political leaders among the Luba became
a factor for the formation and expansion of the
Luba state.
• Good examples were the people like Kongolo and
his nephew Kalala Ilunga. While Kongolo
established the Luba Kingdom and did little in
expanding, Kalala expanded its greatness and
integrity.
 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF LUBA STATE IN THE POLITICS
OF PRE-COLONIAL CENTRAL AFRICA
• It was the first well established and centralized state
which was made up of different functioning political
structures. Such structures were later formulated even in
other Luba-Lunda states.
• The Luba state led to development of sates in many
other parts of Central Africa with migrants from the
Congo basin. Their examples are such as:
– The Lunda state/empire. It was founded by a man called
Cibinda (Kibinda) Ilunga when he ran away from the
conflict he had experienced with his brother; Thunga was
Lwefu Ilunga, who was in power of Luba state to replace
their father, KalalaIlunga after dying..
Cont….

• The Luba Bantu-speaking People’s culture acted as a

binding force in making the people of Luba origin to
maintain political control plus other activities which
were bringing about development for such people
and the areas they lived. All these forces made the
Luba to have states which survived for quite long.
– For example, agriculture made the Luba to become well
supplied with food leading to an increase of population.
That increase of population was necessitating availability
of states which had to resolve people’s conflicts at the
same time administering the activities that people
performed in order to live. States also were to defend
residents against enemies.
 THE CASE STUDIES ON STATES FORMED IN
CENTRAL AFRICA
THE GREAT ZIMBAMBWE. (ZIMBABWENIAN STATE)
• The state of Zimbabwe was formed in the present
day Zimbabwe in the 12th C.A. This was the earliest
state formed in central Africa. Later on it was
replaced by Mwenemutapa.
• The term Great Zimbabwe delivered its name from
the stone architecture which was built through the
use of stones. Thus, Zimbabwe means stone
building. The stone buildings were constructed by
Shona people.
 LOCATION
• The Great Zimbabwe state was located in present day
Zimbabwe encompassing areas of the present day, Zambia,
Southern Malawi and Southern Mozambique.
FACTORS FOR THE EMERGENCE OF GREAT ZIMBABWE
• The Great Zimbabwe as the state was formed under the
influence of numbers of factors as been;
• Agricultural activities, the inhabitants of Great Zimbabwe
were cultivating land and growing crops such as sorghum
and legumes. The land on which such crops were grown was
very rich in soil fertility and used to receive an adequate
rainfall.
• In return the land gave them high yields to feed the
increased population. When the number of people increased
formation of the Great Zimbabwe was possible.
Cont…
• Livestock keeping, the residents of Great Zimbabwe kept
cattle, such as sheep and goats. The animals apart from
supplying of food, they also acted as a source of wealth
among the Mashona who were the dominant resident of the
state. Some of these animals were used as commodities in
trade for exchange with other commodities produced by other
societies.
• Iron smelting activities, iron smelting activities, supplied
weapons against enemies or for conquering of weak states.
Also iron tools helped much in simplifying agricultural
production.
• Gold mining, gold mining was another prominent factor for
consolidating of the state as it was taking place in Sofala.
Sofala was much known centre within and outside Great
Zimbabwe. Gold was the source of wealth in the state.
• Trade, the people of Great Zimbabwe participated in
both local and Long distance trade in which trade
items were involved such as gold, ivory, livestock, crops
and timbers. The people of Great Zimbabwe
exchanged with people of East Africa and Asia. The
commodities that they obtained from outside include;
silk clothes, glass, looking mirrors, beads, Necklaces
and fire arms.
DECLINE/DIMISE OF GREAT ZIMBABWE.
• By 1450 A.D. the Great Zimbabwe declined and its
position was taken over by the Mwenemutapa Empire.
Thus, it was declined due to the following factors;
• Exhaustion of agricultural and grazing land, by 1450
A.D most of the land formerly used in agricultural and
grazing have been exhausted as soil fertility had
diminished. As the land became semi-desert, it was no
longer suitable for production. Hence shortage of food
and grazing land which led people to keep on shifting.
• Shifting of the Long distance trade. Long distance
trade shifted from Great Zimbabwe to other parties.
The decline in long distance caused state to have less
wealth because of having no revenue from trade.
• Conclusion. The Great Zimbabwe is very important in
opening the history of Central Africa.
MWENEMUTAPA EMPIRE
• Mwenemutapa or Mwanamutapa Empire is also
called Mutapa Empire. According to Edward Alpers
(1968), Mutapa Empire was one of the vast political
dominions of East and South-Central Africa for
many centuries before the Nguni invasion to
Central Africa in the 19th century-AD. When the
Nguni invaded the region, Mwenemutapa Empire
collapsed giving rise to different states led by these
refugees from South Africa.
Cont…
• The Mutapa empire was founded since 1450-AD in the
south of Zambezi river.
• At its height in the early 19th century, this empire was
bounded on the North by Zambezi River, on the West by
Kalahari Desert and on the east by the Mozambique
Channel down to the mouth of the Sabi River. To the south,
the empire extended across the Limpopo river into the
northern Transvaal of South Africa.
• So, the empire was situated in the present-day nations of
Zambia and Zimbabwe.
• Traditionally titles of the rulers of Mwenemutapa Empire
were known as Mambo which means the great chief. It is
believed that, the founder of Mwenemutapa Empire was a
man called Chikura Wadyambeu.
 FACTORS THAT LED TO DEVELOPMENT OF MWENEMUTAPA

EMPIRE

• Introduction of iron technology and its smelting processes.

–Iron technology in the area which was later covered by
Mwenemutapa empire, was firstly introduced in the

Zimbabwean plateau during the first millennium-AD by the

people coming from North of river Zambezi.

– Although these people are until now not known plus the
language they used in communicating, the archaeological
Cont….

–It is in that land where the ports and the iron tools they used
were discovered. They are nicknamed as Gokomere and the
Ziwa people. These two terms are coined from the iron-age
cultures which are very dominant in Zimbabwe.

–The Gokomere are said to be the first people to introduce

iron with its technology in Zimbabwe. Mabveni, one of the
areas they lived in Zimbabwe, shows that iron was introduced
by these people in 180-AD.

–The Ziwa people on the other hand, are said to have

introduced iron with its technology by 300-AD in the areas
covering today Inyanga mountains and Harare.
Cont…

–Use of the iron introduced by both the Gokomere and the

Ziwa peoples later engineered development of the
Mwenemutapa Empire because of using the iron weapons
in conquering weak tribes and to use other iron
implements in producing much wealth.

• Coming of the Mashona people into the present-day Zimbabwe.

–The Mashona are said to have established their settlement in
Zimbabwe during the first Century-AD.

–Their arrival in that territory replaced the earlier Gokomere

people for them too, had some additional advantages that the
Gokomere people lacked.
Cont….

–For example, the Mashona had knowledge of building houses

through the use of stones.

–The first Europeans to see the stone buildings raised up by the

Mashona could not believe. They claimed the buildings to

have been constructed by the Asians called Phoenicians.

– In fact, the first stone buildings to be seen in Zimbabwe were

the works of the Mashona. On top of having these skills, the

Mashona were also skillful in iron smelting, agriculture and

trading.
Cont…

• Diplomatic functions of the Mashona people.

–The Mashona were by nature the good diplomats. They did not
apply violence in making their culture to become accepted and
adopted by other tribes.

–Here, the culture of the Mashona used to co-exist with the culture
of others. For example, the Mashona’s cultural superiority in
organization skills, their new and powerful religious concepts and
mystic abilities, made other people to imitate and become easily
assimilated into that culture.

–The Mashona were also with special rain-making techniques

which were making them to have an access of rainfall in every
season when people required it for agricultural and in pastoralism.
Cont…
• A firm economic base of the Mashona states.
–The Mashona people before the development of
Mwenemutapa Empire lived in small Shona states one of
them being the Great Zimbabwe.

–All of these states engaged themselves in various activities

which made them wealthier.

–They for example conducted trade with the Arabs coming

from Tanzania, Kenya and the Somali coasts since the late
1000-AD Sofala being the meeting place.

–That trade had been stimulated by a demand of the African

ivory in India.
Cont…

• The economic base of the Mashona also came from the

existence of minerals used in fashioning various products.

–The Mashona who lived in Zimbabwe and Northern Transvaal

in the present-day South-Africa, were very rich in minerals

such as copper and gold.

–Such items, together with the question of being armed with

vital metallurgical knowledge, made the Mashona wealthier

enough to being accepted as rulers of many other people

under Mwenemutapa Empire.

 FACTORS THAT LED TO THE DOWNFALL OF MWENEMUTAPA EMPIRE:

• Rivalry among the junior members of the family whom the Mambo
had placed as subordinate rulers over his new vassals. The

disputes that resulted from the rivalry of these rulers brought

about disturbances which ended up into the disintegration of the

empire.

• Lines of communication were badly over extended as the Empire

expanded.

–This made it impossible for the Mwenemutapa administrator

Cont….
–it became necessary for the mambo to place the trustful
people for working as local governors over various regions of

the empire and these were lacking; especially the most

trustful beings. Their bad administration over people made

the empire to disintegrate.

 Invasion of the Nguni-speaking people.

As they arrived in Central Africa, they conquered the empire

making it to split into small kingdoms ruled by the conquerors.

E.g. the Ndebele kingdom in Zimbabwe which was firstly led

 HISTORY OF THE KINGDOM OF KONGO
• Kongo is heavy forest region which was inhabited by the
BANTU-speaking people. The constant emigrations and
immigrations so ever led to the founding of the kingdoms.
• The kingdom of Kongo was founded in the 14thC. A.D by the
Ntinu Wene, as son of the small chiefdom of Bungu near
the present town of Boma.
• This is not the present Democratic Republic of Congo but
not the Republique de Congo (Brazzaville-Congo) either.
• These modern states are products of colonizing powers in
the 19th century. The dynasty of the Kingdom of Congo
goes back to more than 500 years, and its traditional
territory is the Atlantic coast and moderate interior of the
present Democratic Republic of Congo & Northern Angola.
• The capital city of Kongo was MBANZA which later
on the Portuguese baptized it San Salve.
• The Kongo Kingdom is a regular Kingdom for more
than half a millennium.
• The Kingdom of Kongo was composed of 6
provinces: Mpemba, Mbata, Nsundi, Mpangu,
Mbemba and Soyo, plus 4 vassal Kingdoms: Loango,
Cacongo and Ngoye, at the North of the N'Zari
river, and Ndongo, at the South of the Congo River.
FACTORS FOR THE GROWTH OF KONGO STATE
• Agricultural production. I.e. .generation of food crops
ensured food security which led to the increase of
population. The increased population automatically led
to the demand of good political system.
• Involvement in trade. Participation in both local and
long distance trade by the Bantu speaking people of
Kongo brought about accumulation of wealth. Hence,
good administrative system to control trade activities.
• Strong beliefs in spiritual and magic power of the Mani-
Kongo (Lord of Kongo). E.g. Wene, Nzinga Nkuwu etc,
who managed to mobilize the people of Kongo state.
Mani was regarded as source of whatever in the state.
• The discovery of precious metals and natural resources
such as copper and iron, combined with the centrality of
trade routes, are factors that contribute to the growth of
any major city. Certainly these were factors that we can
see were key in the development of these locations. Iron
technology. I.e. iron tools helped them in agricultural
production as well as supplying iron weapons for defense
purpose.
• Conquering of neighbouring small chiefdoms. The Kongo
kingdom had ability to conquer small neighbouring states
such as Nsundi, Mbamba, Soyo, Mpangu and Mbata.

.
 THE COLLAPSE/DEMISE OF KONGO STATE
(KINGDOM).
Kongo kingdom (state) crumbled by 1720 because of
both external and internal factors, namely;
Internal factors.
• These were the forces that took place within the kongo
kingdom and caused its downfall, which include;
• Internal struggles. That is, some vassal states declared
independent against the central authority e.g., Soso,
Songolo etc.
• Weak leadership. Example Nzinga Mbemba who was
baptized by Portuguese (Christians) as Don Affonso
was too weak to administer the kingdom.
 The external factors
The external factors mainly were the rescue of
Portuguese interference in Kongo kingdom in the
15thC A.D. The arrival of Portuguese in Central Africa
led to the following;
• Introduction of Christianity. The introduction of
Christianity in Kongo weakened the power of the
Mani-kongo as it brought about new faith, for
instance God, not the Man-Kongo as it became the
source of everything that was good for the Bakongo
• By 1494 the king and the entire royal family had
been converted to Christianity and baptized. E.g.
NZINGA- NKUWU took the name of JOHN 1.
• By that reason the king (Nzinga-Nkuwu) faced
problems in administering both political and spiritual
leadership because most of his people were still
holding their ancestral religion. Hence, rebellion of
the traditionalists against the new faith followers
leading to the collapse of Kongo kingdom.
• Introduction of slave trade. The Portuguese used to
enslave Bakongo and shipping them to the new world
(America), for the cultivation in the plantations and
working in the opened mines. Through slave trade
Bakongo started running away from their residential
areas leading to the downfall of Kongo kingdom.
The map of Kongo kingdom
 CENTRAL AFRICA’S EARLY INVOLVEMENT IN WORLD ECONOMY 1500-1870

• This topic surveys central Africa history in the period

before and after the 15thC. Before the 15thC central Africa
was living independent life because it had not yet
integrated into capitalist economy. After the 15thC,
central Africa was no longer enjoying her independent
life as capitalist economy interfered.
CENTRAL AFRICA BEFORE THE 15th C. A.D
• Central Africa before the 15thC was with self-sufficient
economy. The inhabitants of this region (central Africa)
involved themselves in various economic activities. Thus,
the people of central Africa survived by their own ways
through the following activities;
• Agriculture, this was one of the economic activities that
people performed. The Bantu in particulars were chief
participants in this activity. They were able to grow
different types of crops such as legumes, millet, sorghum,
sweet potatoes, type of rice called sibuyuyu and type of
yams called Sikuswani.
• On top of the above crops by the 15th C, the Bantu started
growing maize, cassava, groundnuts and tobacco. All
these crops were introduced in central Africa by the
Portuguese from the Americas.
• Iron smelting activity. Apart from agriculture, the Bantu
also engaged in smelting iron. Through iron smelting, they
were able to get iron tools such as hoes, spears, arrows
and type of fighting axes called Lukano.
• Handcraft industry. Furthermore the Bantu speaking
people possessed some skills of craftworks. The
handcraft included; pottery, basketry, carpentry,
carving and bark cloth making.
• Pastoralism. People of central Africa before
15thCentury A.D. Also engaged in animal keeping. The
good example of pastoralists includes, Khoikhoi. They
kept animals such as cattle i.e. sheep and goats.
• Hunting and gathering activities. Inhabitants of central
Africa for the long time had been engaging in hunting
of wild animals and gathering of wild fruit roots,
vegetations, insects and mushroom.
LONG-DISTANCE TRADE-ROUTES IN CENTRAL AFRICA
• The economic developments among the societies of central
Africa before 15thCentury led to development of the
exchange system.
• The structure of indigenous trade in Central Africa makes it
necessary to distinguish between three different types of
trade.
• There is first the local trade from village to village within a
given population. The goods exchanged are generally
specialized products from local industry, and the exchange
comes about because some villages possess supplies of raw
materials which are not available to others, e.g. pottery
clay, or because they are inhabited by specialists such as
smiths or woodcarvers who are not available in others.
• This type of trade is conducted in local markets, and generally
speaking, currency of some sort is in use. It is still alive today,
and one can assume that it is very old, since such a system shows
little dynamism. The necessities remain the same; the
organization is simple and efficient.
• A second type of trade is conducted over greater distances
either between culturally different peoples within a single state,
or between neighbouring peoples.
• Transactions are made at market-places located close to the
borders of the trading peoples, or at the capital of the state.
They are held every fourth or every eighth day and are intimately
connected with the week.
• On the other three days of a four-day week, local markets will
be held. The fourth day is a day of rest and peace and is devoted
to the regional trade.
• The goods exchanged are foodstuffs, specialized
products from local industry, and products which
come from markets specialized in the long-distance
trade, such as European goods, salt or copper.
• The trade arises partly because
– some suitable raw materials exist only in some
chiefdoms and not in others,
– some special skills which are present only in some
cultures.
 Standards of values and currencies are in general
use. This trade survives only to a limited extent
today. It shows more dynamism than the local trade.
 Long-distance trade
• Long-distance trade, the third type of trade, was unknown in
Central Africa before the arrival of the Europeans in the
fifteenth century.
• It involves more than a passing on from market to market of
goods coming from distant places; it is direct trade over long
distances.
• East Africa exported to central Africa commodities like -such as
cloth, cowries, beads, fire-arms, powder, and wine which were
initially exported by the coast of East Africa from the Far East,
Middle East and Europe.
• In that trade relation, central Africa exported to east Africa
different items such as copper, gold, food crops, and ivory, iron
or copper, objects for slaves, ivory and copper, and, in the later
seventeenth century, wax, and in the late nineteenth century,
rubber
• The trade was conducted by caravans, and
currencies, standards of value, and means of
payment for services were extensively used.
• The trade was based on coastal harbours where the
African goods were shipped and the European
stores unloaded.
• The entrepreneurs, who could afford to fit out
caravans and supply them with goods, were
European traders, sometimes local kings and
African traders who would eventually come
together to find the necessary capital
 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF LONG DISTANCE TRADE
ON CENTRAL AFRICAN SOCIETIES
• Emergence and consolidation of states in central Africa. E.g.
Zambian state, Angolan state, Kongo state and Zimbabwean
state.
• Growth of towns in the interior, e.g. Tete, Sofala, Ingombe,
Ilede and Katanga.
• Intermarriage between the indigenous and foreigners. E.g.
intermarriage between foreigners and Bantu led to the half
casts known as the Mambari people or pombieros, in central
Africa.
• Intensification of exploitation of natural resources. E.g., gold,
copper, timber, honey etc.
• Development of infrastructures e.g., troop routes and roads.
• Introduction of slave trade in central Africa.
• Spread of Islamic religion and culture to the interior of
Africa.
• Development of international trade system between
central Africa and other parts of the world e.g. trans-
Saharan slave trade, Indian slave trade etc.
• Central Africa was integrated into capitalist’s economy
production. I.e. Africa had to produce what they did not
consume and consumed what they did not produce. E.g.
copper in Zambia.
• Underdevelopment of central Africa as Africans
produced valuable goods while importing consumable
goods from Europe and Asia.
Slave Trade in central Africa Incorporation into
the Capitalist World Economy
• Unprecedented commercial penetration from the
East African coast during the nineteenth century
resulted in the incorporation of most of Central
Africa into the capitalist world economy.
• Many of the captives were exported to the Indian
Ocean plantation system, Madagascar and the
Middle East rather than to the N e w World.
 CENTRAL AFRICAN TRADE FROM 15thC ONWARDS.

• Starting from the 15thC the form of trade that

central Africa entered was slave trade. This trade
was introduced mainly by the Portuguese and lesser
extent the Dutch. The introduction of slave trade in
central Africa marked the participation of this
region in the European mercantilism.

CENTRAL AFRICA UNDER MERCANTALISM

• (HOW AMERCANTALISM LED EXPLORATION OF
DIFFERENT AREAS OF THE WORLD
• Mercantilism led to the exploration of different parts of
/places of the world. The explorations were initially made
by Portuguese and Spain.
• Portugal under the sponsorship of King Henry Prince
Navigator sent Vasco Da Gama and his conveys from
Europe to Far East.
• As the result of that exploration, Europe managed to know
Africa. E.g. central Africa as a place where slaves and
natural resources could be obtained. Spain on its side
stating early 15thC emerged as a Union of two Kingdoms
named Castele and New Le-on.
• The new nation in 1492 sent Christopher Columbus with his
conveys to make an exploration from Europe to America.
• When America was discovered, but was made important
sources of resources needed in Europe, such as gold, ivory,
timbers and areas to support growing of crops such as
tobacco, sugarcane, rice, cotton and indigo. Therefore the
exploration activities ended into discovery of resources
needed for the further development of mercantilism. E.g.
slaves from central Africa and other resources.
• After the first two methods of obtaining labour i.e.
indigenous of America (Red Indies) and Europeans from
Europe (White Indentured) in form of contract labour and
criminals, Europeans who had plantations and mines in
America turned in Africa to get labour in form of slaves. The
slave name was given to them to mean they had to work in
the work permanently; even if they die their children could
replace them.
• The law passed state that all parents and their children
could work as slaves. Central Africa being the as a midiest
position in Africa was forced to supply slaves in two routes
developed in the continent namely;
– First, East African slave route, (Indian Slave Trade)
– Second, West African slave route. (Trans Atlantic
Slave Trade) or triangular slave trade.
• Central Africa was involved into two slaves intensively
during the 15thC A.D. during this time central Africa were
running through west Africa and it continued up to the
18thC to Americas.
• By the early 19thC, more other slaves from central Africa
were being exported through east African slave trade
• During that that times the shift of Seyyid Said from
Muscat to Zanzibar, slaves from central Africa were
also needed to supply their labour. The tribes that
were supplying slaves in central Africa included the
Yao, Chewa, Bisa, Mbundu, Bemba and even individual
chiefs.
REASONS FOR THE INVOLVEMENT IN SLAVE TRADE
• Although the slave trade illegal (inhuman), Africans
involved in slave trade because of the following
reasons;
– Africans were ignorant for they did not know the
inner most problem of putting their fellow Africans
into slave trade.
– Africans were in need of gaining wealth from slave trade.
E.g. guns, gunpowder, clothes and other ornaments.
– Africans wanted to punish the criminals and thereafter
improving security in the society. All the chiefs in central
Africa had no prisons within which they could retain the
criminals. Thus, criminals were sold as slaves.
– To rescue the captives in wars from dying, some of the
slaves were the people who had been captured in war.
Thus, selling them as slaves could rescue them from
dying. E.g. the Bundu.
– This trade made other races of the work to start looking
the Africans as inferior or most of cursed people. Hence,
involvement of Africans in this inhuman trade.
The impact of slave trade on central Africa up to the
1800
• Africa was affected Socially, Politically and
Economically during the Atlantic Slave Trade.
– Increased insecurity, distrust and high level of
conflicts among African groups accured as the
Africans were capturing and selling their own
people into slavery to meet the Europeans
demand for slaves.
– Language: the language of many African tribes
were mixed with European language thereby
forming new languages. One such language is the
Swahili.
• Cultural Erasure: the loss of their cultural beliefs or practices
over a period of time. (Mohammad 2004) Cultural Diversity:
Cultural Retention: Culture Rene
• The expansion of politics in Africa. There was the distribution
of ammunition in Central and West Africa which helped with
the military and political supremacy of tribes in Africa. Political
Alliances were betrayed between slave traders and African
leaders. These Alliances enabled the rulers to establish
authority over their counterparts.
• Some kings prospered, and entire kingdoms developed around
the Slave Trade.
• The trade had a negative impact on the economic
development, as Africa was being robbed of its most important
resource: Human Resource, which was being exploited.
• This trade destroyed the labor force creating
insecurity and instability in the economy of Africa. It
affected Agriculture and mining in that the
remaining people had no veal to revive the
economy any more. Also, it must be known that the
Trans-Atlantis Slave Trade strained Africa of her
most productive man power
TOPIC 5. FURTHER EUROPEAN INTERVENTION:
THE PORTUGUESE IN KONGO.
• According to Ogutu and Kenyanchui (1991), the early history
of the Kongo kingdom was greatly affected by the arrival of
the Portuguese.
• Diago Cao first visited the Kongo in 1482 landed at the mouth
of the Congo River (formerly known as the Zaire River). Many
Portuguese returned to the area in the 1490's.
•  In 1491 King Nzinga Nkuwu willingly converted to
Christianity with many of the Kongolese following his move. It
was at this time that he was given the Christian name,
Alfonso.
• In the same year, Nzinga-Nkuwu sent young Bakongo for
training in Lisbon. He was baptized as JOHN 1.
• The kingdom remained Christian for the next 200 years.
• The Kongo church was accepted as Orthodox, and
the people of the Kongo were in constant contact
with religious figures like the pope
• While some of the members of the Kongo kingdom
joined Christianity, others rejected and remained to
African traditional religions. To maintain his
authority, Nzinga Nkuwu and one of his sons,
Mpanzua Kitima renounced Christianity. The king`s
mother and another of his sons Nzinga Mbemba
(who was baptized Don Alfonso 1) held on the new
religion.
• The division of the royal family caused struggles
between the two different beliefs. Nzinga Mbemba
(Don Alfonso 1) fled to Nsundi and left the capital.
In Nsundi province Portuguese took care of him. By
1506 when his father died Don Alfonso 1 took
power with the support of Portuguese mercenaries.
Alfonso believed in the superiority of Christianity
over Paganism. He asked technological assistance
from the king Manuel of Portugal as well as a help
to convert Bakongo into Christianity.
 ACHIEVEMENTS OF DON ALFONSO 1.
• He managed to send many young nobles, especially his sons
and close relatives to Lisbon to acquire Portuguese
education.
• He established schools for nobles in Kongo.
• He expanded trade with Portuguese; mainly he sent copper,
iron and slaves to Portugal.
• He managed to invite many missionaries and technicians
from Portugal.
• By 1541 Don Alfonso 1 died. Other Kongo rulers under the
Portuguese assistance included Diogo 1 until 1561, Alvare 1
(1561 to 1570), Alvare II until 1614 and followed by Garcia II
until 1641.
• NOTE: The introduction of both Christianity and slave trade
by the Portuguese led to the collapse o f Kongo kingdom.
 EARLY MISSIONARIES, TRADERS AND EXPLORERS.
• Just as it happened in other parts of Africa, central
Africa was exposed to three agents of colonialism ie;
– The missionaries
– The explorers and
– The traders.
• THE MISSIONARIES.
• Missionaries were the Christians whose main activities
were;
• Firstly, to spread the word of God based on Christian
religion. Thus, Christian’s missionaries who arrived in
central Africa were also explorers as a result in
whatever area they explored, they at the same time
spreading Christianity.
• Secondly, to win the Africans so that their hearts and minds
could easily accept colonial administration peacefully. Thus,
Christian missionaries paved the way of European colonization
of Africa. Examples of missionaries who came in central Africa
included;
• Dr. David Living Stone, who was described as by many Scholars
and Historians as the greatest explorer missionary and
European imperialist of the 19thCentury in central Africa.
• He came from Scotland under the umbrella of London
missionary’s society. He opened up Legitimacy trade which
was to replace slave trade as well as opening up central Africa
to colonial occupation.
• He managed to explore and it’s surrounding areas. In his
speech of 1869 to the students of University of Cambridge
and Oxford universities
• Dr. David Living Stone argued that “I`m going back to Africa to
try to open up for commerce, Christianity and civilization thus
colonialists may follow me to finish up what I have already
begun”. As a result of his speech , Dr. David Living Stone, was
followed by various many missionaries societies such as;
– The London missionary society
– The Church of England
– The Universities of missionary and
– The Methodist Church etc.
• John Moffat. This was remembered as a missionary explorer
who stayed in Zimbabwe for 30 years, where he was able to be
friend himself to Lobengula the chief. However, when
Lobengula was ruling this friend betrayed him by helping the
British in signing false treaties in October 1888
 B: TRADERS.
• Traders were responsible for building of strong
foundation for capitalist economic exploitation out
of their activities.
• Example, by the 16th Century A.D. during the rise of
mercantile activities; the Portuguese and the Dutch
were busy engaging themselves in obtaining slaves
from central Africa. During the second half of the
19th Century A.D. when legitimate trade had been
introduced to replace slave trade, people became
interested in minerals and ivory.
• Thus, more Europeans came into central Africa to
seek for areas where minerals could be obtained.
• Some Europeans engaged in farming. For the case, a good
number of Europeans asked for possession of land along
river Congo and in Angola. Some Europeans collected wild
rubber and from Katanga and honey from the interior of
Congo. Therefore, traders performed different activities
depending on different time and the commodities they were
looking for.
• A good example of traders who operated in central Africa
include, Edward Shaku-Man, George Maclabe, Jacob
Hartley, George Philip, Jan Joen, Thomas Leask, FC Selous,
George West beach etc. All these traders became a factor
for the colonization in central Africa, in the hand they all
wanted their home countries to come and colonize the
countries of central Africa.
• Also, the traders who came in central Africa were
holding trading companies which were later on
given a royal charter and became known as Charted
Companies.
• E.g. The British South Africa Company (BSACO) was
under Cecil Rhodes Britain and operated in Zambia,
Malawi and Zimbabwe. The International African
Association was under King Leopold II of Belgium
that operated in the Democratic Republic of Kongo
(Congo-Kinshasa)
(c). EXPLORERS.
• Explorers were the third group of Europeans to arrive in
central Africa after missionaries and traders. The
explorers collected important information about central
Africa and reported on their home countries, the areas
which were potential for trade routes, mineral produced
areas, agricultural activities and settlement.
THE EFFECTS/PERIL OF MISSIONARIES, TRADERS AND
EXPLORERS ON CENTRAL AFRICA.
• Encouragement of legitimate trade i.e. Barter system
was introduced to replace slave trade.
• Development of cash crop economies e.g. coffee,
groundnuts, rubber, tea, cotton etc.
• Introduction of Christianity. I.e. Africans were
converted into Christianity.
• Introduction of western education.
• Production of future politicians i.e. Robert Mugabe
of Zimbabwe, Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia, Kamuzu
Banda of Malawi, Patrice Lumumba of D.R.C etc.
• Exploitations of Africans resources.
• Influencing Europeans colonialism in central Africa.
 CENTRAL AFRICA IN THE EPOCH OF
IMPERIALISM1880s TO THE PRESENT.
• SCRAMBLE FOR AND PARTITION OF CENTRAL
AFRICA.
• Scramble for means sudden rushes for colonies.
According to Shillington (1995), by the end of the
massive onslaught, known as European scramble for
Africa had brought most the continent within the
sphere of European colonial era.
• According to Okoth in his work “A History of Africa”,
partition is a phenomenon which forms a major
landmark in African history.
THE CAUSES OF SCRAMBLEA AND PARTITION OF CENTRAL AFRICA.

• The factor that triggered off scramble for and

partition of central Africa are as below;
• The rise of Germany and European balance of
power. The scramble and ultimately partition of
Africa was a result of European rivalry resulting from
the rise of Germany and Bismarck opportunism.
• The unification of Germany and the defeat of France
during Franco-Prussian war of 1871 implied that, first
Germany became a new land power threatening
France. Second France decided to seek for colonies
outside Europe to make compensation to her lost two
provinces namely, Lorraine
 and Alsace which were rich in coal and iron. So by these
reasons central Africa was a target.
• Racism. Industrialization gave rise to the theories of racial
superiority of the white men over other races. Since Africa
was not yet industrialized, she was considered as inferior to
whites. Africa was to be dominated by the superior.
• According to famous missionary and explorer in central
Africa Dr. David Living Stone, “Africans were merely grown
up children, a race that will only attain maturity of other
men after they have been persuaded to stop worshipping
hills, wood, rivers and malignant spirits of their own dead”.
• European nationalism. The emergence of nationalism in
Europe led to the scramble and partition of central Africa in
that, acquisition of colonies was the prestige for the given
nation.
• For instance, Jules Ferry of France in 1885, declared that, “It
is necessary that our country put itself in position to do what
others are doing, and because colonial expansion is the most
important means at this time used by all the European
powers, it is necessary that we play our part”.
• The Brazza-Makoko treaty of 1880. Savorganan de Brazza
was an Italian adventurer who worked and made treats with
King Makoko of Kongo in 1880, for France. i.e. on behalf of
French government. The treaty declared that, “Brazza and
Makoko, agreed that, north of Kongo Kingdom to be
controlled by France”. By so doing, even other European
powers sent various explorers to make treaties with African
chiefs in central Africa just for colonial occupation. E.g. John
Moffat for British government signed a dubious/ bogus treaty
with chief Lobengula in Zimbabwe.
• Economic imperialism. Imperialism was a function of
Europe`s imperatives need for an outlet for her support
capital. Europeans powers that had already developed
industrialization scrambled and partitioned central Africa
so as to look for industrial demands. I.e. Raw materials,
area for investments and markets. These protective
colonies were very import assessor for each imperial power
in order to quench thirsty of industrial demands.
• CONCLUSION
• Economic imperialism was the key factor for scramble for
and partition of Africa, the rest was just helping forces as
they occurred after industrial revolution in Europe. Africa
witnessed a furious scramble after the 1884/1885 Berlin
conference and was divided among competitors.
• After the Berlin conference, central Africa was occupied
among imperialist powers such as;
• Belgium under King Leopold II occupied DRC
• Portuguese occupied Angola and Mozambique.
• British occupied Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
• French occupied Congo Brazzaville and Central African
Republic.
N:B. Thus, colonization of central Africa was the result of four
principles agreed during the Berlin conference namely:
• Each imperialist power should inform other signatory
powers over the claimed areas in Africa.
• The effective occupation over the claimed territory (sphere
of influence).
 ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL STATE AND ECONOMY.

• After the defeat of African resistance, the colonial

powers established their political administration.
Thus, the imperialist governments established
colonial state in order to exploit their colonies
effectively. The role of the colonial state was to
supervise and control production in the colonies in
fact; the colonial state had both administrative and
executive powers over the given colonies. In central
Africa, colonial powers established different political
administrative political systems as follows;
 BRITISH ADMINISTRATION IN SOUTHERN RHODESIA (ZIMBABWE)

• After the defeat of Ndebele and Shona in 1896-97, the British

established themselves effectively in Southern Rhodesia
(Zimbabwe). The company rule British South Africa Company
(BSACO) in 1898 was followed the appointment of Resident
Commissioner to act as a British Government “Watch Dog”. His
duties included supervision of the Police Force.
• Throughout the constitution of 1898, the Mashona and
Ndebele land was put under one administration with
headquarters in Salisbury.
• It also enabled the establishment of an Executive Council
consisting of Resident Commissioner and four members
nominated by the Company; and Legislative Council consisting
of five settlers appointed by the Company and four elected
ones.
• The Legislative Council could make laws suited to
the approval of South African Higher commission
who might also legislate by proclamation.
• Colonial economy in Zimbabwe expanded after
laying down the British South Africa Company
administration. Both mining and farming activities
were improved through lying down railway lines.
The land was expropriated from the native Africans
so as to get the working force in the opened
plantations and mines in Zimbabwe.
 ADMINISTRATIONS AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE
CONGO `FREE` STATE.
• The Congo Free State was under the personal
government of Leopold II from 1885-1908. Belgium
had no say in its administration that is why it was
really a ‘free’ nation (state). Leopold continued to
live in Brussels, but sent administration to the
Congo who was directly responsible to him.
According to Shillington (1995), Congo was a Free
State because it was not subjected to any
government control from Europe.
• Governor was the head of the government, under
him, there were District administration, and Belgian
Code (law) replaced African customary law in the
courts. In the army the rank of the commissioned
officers were led by the Belgians, whereby Africans
occupied bottom ranks as ‘Sentinels’ who were used
in supervising and punishing their fellow Africans
during the collection of rubber.
• In terms of land ownership, it was declared that, King
Leopold II was the Proprietor of all the exploited land,
that is, land neither occupied nor exploited by the
indigenous people. Thus, Congo supplied both rubber
and ivory from the vacant land.
• Additions to that, Africans were exploited through
payment of taxes.
• Thus, Africans were compelled to work every two
weeks in the rubber jungles so as to pay tax in kind.
• Through pressures exerted by USA and Britain
government, King Leopold II was forced to
surrender all his claims to the Belgium government.
The territory became known as the Belgian Congo
in 1908. The King himself died a year later in 1909.
• However, Belgian government also went on
exploiting both natural resources and the people of
Congo.
• On 11 November 1965, the Rhodesian Front of Ian
Smith issued a Unilateral Declaration of
Independence (UDI) from the United Kingdom. The
country was run by a minority of approximately a
quarter million whites, who had both the political
and economic power.
• The British Government considered the UDI
unconstitutional and illegal, and imposed sanctions
on Rhodesia and later from the United Nations. The
sanctions continued and the political pressure
against Rhodesia increased as the 1970s progressed
 The Rhodesian Bush War of 1970s
• The Rhodesian Bush War-also known as the Second
Chimurenga or the Zimbabwe War of Liberation-was a
civil war that took place from July 1964 to December 1979
in the unrecognized country of Rhodesia (later
Zimbabwe-Rhodesia).
• The conflict pitted three forces against one another: the
Rhodesian government, under Ian Smith (later the
Zimbabwe Rhodesian government of Bishop
Abel Muzorewa); the
Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army, the military
wing of Robert Mugabe's
Zimbabwe African National Union; and the
Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army of Joshua Nkomo
's Zimbabwe African People's Union
 Factors influence the crisis
• The black Africans lacked both economic and
political influence, and there was also a wish for
true democracy.
• In 1970 the mean income of blacks was 10 times
lower than the corresponding white mean income.
• There was a rise in international oil prices in 1973,
something which also affected the Rhodesian
economy.
• Even more important, in 1974 Portugal gave up
their two colonies Mozambique and Angola (the
former directly bordering Rhodesia).
• The wave of Marxism that swept over the African
continent:
• Knowledge of Marxist ideology and political supply-
wise support from the Soviet Union and China helped
initiate the guerilla war.
• The nationalist organizations ZANU and ZAPU
received support from communist countries due to
their shared ideology.
• The Marxist ideology suited the African nationalism in
Rhodesia, as it did in several other African countries.
• Thus, the blacks struggle for majority rule was easily
combined with Marxist ideology.
• Power and influence by the two strong rebel leaders,
Nkomo and Mugabe.
• The Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) and the
Zimbabwe Africans People’s Union (ZAPU) were to
become the two leading freedom or nationalist
movements for the black population of Rhodesia.
• Mugabe’s ZANU fought mainly in Eastern Rhodesia, and
made use of bases in Mozambique. They received support
from China, yet still lacked food, clothing, and weapons.
• ZAPU, which was led by Joshua Nkomo, fought in Western
Rhodesia, made use of bases in Zambia (former Northern
Rhodesia), and received support from the Soviet Union
 Effects of guerilla attacks
• With the increase in guerilla attacks in 1976 it became
obvious that a regular armed forces of about 6000
personnel (1400 were foreigners, so-called “soldiers of
fortune”) was not enough to manage a full-scale warfare.
• Thus, the private sector had to be somewhat neglected
as the military had top priority.
• No white male 17-year olds were allowed to leave
Rhodesia to study.
• According to government statistics there were at least
20,350 war-related deaths in Rhodesia between
December 1972 and December 1979: 468 white civilians,
1361 members of the security forces, 10,450 terrorists,
and 7790 black civilians.
• The Rhodesian Bush War was a gruesome war where atrocities,
torture, and murder of civilians was common place on both
sides. The “freedom fighters” had terrorized the rural
population, butchered accused traitors, and massacred innocent
civilians.
• The “defenders of Western Civilization” abused prisoners, killed
civilians, and burned villages. The warfare had placed the
economy and peoples feeling of personal security under
pressure.
• In 1976 the warfare intensified, and now also included
skirmishes between security forces from Rhodesia and
neighboring Mozambique. After a Rhodesian aerial attack in
Mozambique, the border was closed between the two countries.
This meant that Rhodesia lost two important railroad lines which
accounted for about half of Rhodesia’s transport of goods.
• Both export and import now had to be transported
along the only two railroad lines into South Africa.
These were subject to massive sabotage operations in
1976.
• The tourist industry had now become a target for
guerilla attacks, and border skirmishes with forces
from Zambia and Mozambique had become
commonplace.
• The guerilla warfare meant higher taxes for the white
population. Almost the whole white male population
between 18 and 50 years was affected by different
forms of military or police service.
•
• The society as a whole felt the lack of skilled
workers, as emigration increased drastically from
1973 and onwards. An uncertain future, lack of
possibilities, and the burdensome military call-ups
were the main reasons that many white Rhodesians
chose to leave the country.
• Even though the numbers for the black civilians is
possibly underestimated, and a fair share of guerilla
fighters were killed in battles in the neighboring
countries, the white population was hardest hit by
the war if one takes into account their total
numbers.
• The Rhodesian Bush War alone that causes the
downfall of Smith’s government. It was rather the
interplay between them, and especially the direct
political pressure from the USA and South Africa
which paved the road for majority rule.
 The post-independence period

• THE PROBLEMS FACING THE POST-INDEPENDENCE

COUNTRIES IN CENTRAL AFRICAN AND MEASURES TAKEN
TO SOLVE THOSE PROBLEMS
• Central African countries have fallen victim to political unrest
and civil wars for various reasons throughout their
development.
• In the 1960s, 70s, 80s, and in the recent most of Central
African countries were faced with different crises. These
crises include :
– maladministration,
– political repression and instability,
– electoral fraud,
– active ethnic nationalism,
– religious fundamentalism,
– civil unrest,
– armed conflict,
– proliferation of illicit arms,
– violent crimes,
– economic crunch,
– famine and hunger,
– poverty,
– emerging and reemerging diseases (AIDS, Ebola,
malaria and tuberculosis),
– environmental degradation and underdevelopment.
DRC is a profile in the crisis of instability in contemporary
Africa
HISTORICAL CAUSES OF CIVIL UNREST
Economic
There are at least four causes of civil wars in central Africa.
– The first is innate ethnic and religious hatred, where these
hatreds are then exploited by ambitious leaders.
– National grievance, on the other hand, is where the
performance of a government is held to be against the
national interest.
– The third is distributional grievance, where government
performance is held as having been particularly
discriminatory against a given group or groups in society.
– Lastly is employment, where rebellion is an employment
choice motivated by the opportunity cost of employment
and the prospective gains from capturing the state and its
resource base.
Ethnic Nationalism
• Ethnic/micro nationalism is also a effective force to
reckon with in the crisis of instability in Africa.
• Currently, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, and Malawi,
summarize such grave assumptions of trouble and
shade about the continent, considering the dire
prospects of political and social implosions in these
countries due to creeping dictatorship and violation
of the basic tenets of democracy and
constitutionality
Resources

• All across Africa citizens are confronted with various

conflicts of different levels of intensities.
• Environmental resource capture in particular mineral
resources has been a fundamental cause of these
conflicts and insecurity in many parts of central Africa.
• Countries such as the Democratic Republic of Congo and
Angola are slowly emerging out of conflicts that were
fuelled by years of contest over mineral resources.
• Also, incidences of community dissent against and
conflicts over mining, oil, gas, fisheries, timber projects,
and general environmental resources are widespread
and growing in central Africa.
• Sometimes the conflict is between ethnic groups;
and another time it is between local communities,
informal small-scale resource producers,
transnational corporations, and the state.
• In many cases these conflicts have turned violent
and resulted in human rights violation.
• There are instances where communities have
suffered militaristic attacks from government and
mining companies. Some have had their water
sources polluted, their land taken without fair and
adequate compensation; and others have had their
sources of livelihood completely destroyed.
• The conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo
started around 1996 as a political conflict involving
four factions-government forces, the Movement de
Liberation du Congo, Rassemblement Congolais
Pour la Democratic (RCD/GOMA), and
Rassemblement Congolais Pour la Democratic
(RCD/KMC). The contest for political power was
directly linked to the mineral resources as each
faction tried to take control of the diamond fields.
• Communities such as Ubundu, Bafwasende, and
Banalia in the Kisangani province became battle
fields due to diamond deposits in these areas
 MEASURES TAKEN TO SOLVE THOSE PROBLEMS
• The strategy to addressing the resource capture
conflicts in Africa is for African governments to
resist pressures and reposition themselves in the
global order. Policy lobby mostly carried out by
international financial corporations (IFIs) in
particular the World Bank Group and the
International Monetary Fund in collaboration with
some northern Governments.
• Also, national institutions and the various pillars of
governments must live up to their responsibility in
order to prevent the abuse of power.
• African governments should reflect, unite and reposition
the continent in the global economic order, which would
allow them to reap the benefits of their environmental
and mineral resources.
• The repositioning requires that governments should adopt
and implement policies and programs which address the
developmental needs and priorities of the people while
ensuring environmental diversity for inter and intra-
generation.
• Any plans to increase mineral resource exploitation
whether through foreign or domestic investment must be
guided by a national vision to maximizing net benefits,
minimizing environmental cost, and ensuring a rights-
based approach to mineral extraction.
 The 2008 Zimbabwe’s political crisis
• Zimbabwe entered a state of violent political crisis in the
aftermath of the presidential elections held in two
rounds on March 29 and June 27, 2008. 
• President Robert Mugabe led a campaign of terror
against the opposition party, Movement for Democratic
Change (MDC) and its supporters in the lead up to the
electoral process. 
• Since 2000, state security forces in Zimbabwe have
committed acts of violence against thousands of
civilians, targeting primarily political opponents and aid
workers. 
• Human rights violations have included imprisonment,
enforced disappearance, murder, torture, and rape
 Causes of the 2008 Zimbabwe’s political crisis
• President Robert Mugabe’s national policies led to
a severe economic collapse and grave failure of the
national health system. 
– Failed monetary policies,
– currency devaluations,
– corruption, and
– land seizure policy that devastated Zimbabwe’s once
thriving agricultural sector.
• These led to an economic crash that left 80% of the
population unemployed and hyper-inflation at
approximately 231 million percent. 
• The land seizure policy transferred thriving farmland from
competent farmers to Mugabe supporters, simultaneously
displacing over one million civilians and allowing the farms to
fail.
• This also resulted in a resource crisis, leaving much of the
country without welfare, food, or the ability to afford
healthcare. 
• A widespread emigration of medical personnel from the
country, failure of sanitation infrastructure, and near
universal poverty fueled an increase in mortality and disease.
•  The cholera epidemic, which began in August 2007, left
approximately 4,000 dead and 90,000 gravely ill with limited
access to medical care or humanitarian aid, and with a threat
of spreading in the region.
• Human Rights Watch identified the crisis’ “simple cause:” “the
ruling ZANU-PF leadership's diversion of resources away from
basic public health towards sustaining its illegitimate rule,
personal enrichment and oppressing its MDC opponents.”
• Prior to the run-off presidential election in June, the security
services and ZANU-PF militia unleashed a campaign of
intimidation, torture and murder against opposition activists,
journalists, polling agents, public servants, civic leaders and
ordinary citizens suspected of voting for the opposition party,
Movement for Democratic Change (MDC).
• The violence came to a climax when, after losing the March
2008 presidential election, President Mugabe carried out
 widespread state-sponsored violence and terror. 
• Human rights violations, including
torture, beatings, mutilations, and rapes were
perpetrated against leaders and supporters of the
opposition. Even after Mugabe won the 
sham June runoff election, routine and arbitrary 
arrest and detentions and enforced disappearances 
continued, as the ZANU-PF used “repression 
to back its dubious claim to power.
 Responses and solution to the Crisis
• Response from Civil Society: Civil society groups immediately
and strongly condemned the violence,
• The Regional Response: Regional response to the crisis was
minimal and inadequate. Across the continent, Heads of State
and governments condemned Mugabe’s regime and called for
him to step down in order to end the suffering in Zimbabwe. 
• The International Community Response: The UN monitored
the deterioration of the country, but failed to undertake
measures that effectively addressed the mass human rights
violations and violence. On 16 April 2008, the President of the
European Union (EU) issued a declaration on behalf of the EU
that expressed its deep concern about reports of violent
incidents and the deteriorating human rights situation in the
country.
• Political Compromise and Post-Conflict Zimbabwe.
In September 2008, President Mugabe and both
heads of the MDC factions, Morgan Tsvangirai and
Arthur Mutambara, signed the Global Political
Agreement (GPA).
• South African President Thabo Mbeki became the
guarantor of this agreement, which came into effect
in February 2009 and established a unity
government in which Mugabe remained as
President and Tsvanngirai assumed the position of
Prime Minister.
 The March 23 Movement
• What is m23 (Group involved in this crisis)
• Causes m23
• Effect m23