Unit Operations in Food Processing

(FSPT 2083)
BY
Genenu A. (Msc)
Department of Food Science & Post Harvest Technology
Jimma University collage of Agriculture and veterinary Medicine
genenu007@gmail.co

Feb., 2016
Jimma ,Ethiopia

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COURSE OUTLINE
• Lecture 1 Introduction

• Lecture 2 Material and Energy balances

• Lecture 3 Material handling and related preliminary operations

• Lecture 4 Mechanical separation

• Lecture 5 Theory and applications of Membrane separation

processes

• Lecture 6 Theory and applications of Contact equilibrium

separation processes
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Grading
Continuous Assessment Test - 45%

Examination - 50%

Attendance - 5%

Total - 100%

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 Lecture one : Introduction
1.1. Food Processing Engineering
Food process engineering includes the part of human
activity in which the knowledge of physical, natural,
and economic sciences is applied to agricultural
products as related to their composition, energetic
content, or physical state.”
The science of conceiving, calculating, designing,
building, and running the facilities where the
transformation processes of agricultural products, at
the industrial level and as economically as possible,
are carried out.”
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Lecture one : Introduction
an engineer in the food industry should know :
the basic principles of process engineering
capable of designing the equipment
develop new production techniques

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 1.2. Food Processing
Process is the set of activities or industrial
operations that modify the properties of raw
materials
Series of physical processes that can be broken down
into simple operations
These operations can stand alone
The study of process engineering is an attempt to
combine all forms of physical processing into a small
number of basic operations, which are called unit
operations

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 1.3. Transformation and Commercialization of
Agricultural Products
Agricultural products should be easy to handle
and to place in the market
products obtained directly from the harvest
cannot be commercialized as they are
Products that can be directly used should be
adequately packaged according to requirements
of the market
 many agricultural products have a short shelf life

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1.4.Flow Charts and Description of
Some Food Processes
Food processes are usually schematized by means
of flow charts
 manufacturing steps
 the flow of materials and energy in the process

There are different types of flow charts;

o “blocks” or “rectangles.”
o equipment” and “instrumentation
E.g : juice extraction
Fruit Crushing Pressing
concentr Enzymatic
ation treatment

Evaporation Clarification
Storage Cooling

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1.5.Classifications of unit operations
There are different types of unit operations:
 Physical stages: grinding, sieving, mixture,
fluidization, sedimentation,flottation, filtration,
rectification, absorption, extraction,adsorption,
heat exchange, evaporation, drying, etc.
 Chemical stages: refining, chemical peeling
 Biochemical stages: fermentation, sterilization,
pasteurization, enzymatic peeling
 Heat transfer unit operation
 Mass transfer unit operation

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 Class activity one
1. Compare and contrast unit operation and
process
2. Select one common unit operation that involve
in food industry and specify its function

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 2. Heat Transfer Unit Operations

2.1 Fundamentals of heat

transfer phenomena
 Heat transfer is a science that studies
the energy transfer between two
bodies due to temperature difference
1. Heat conduction: Heat goes
through a static material (medium).
2. Heat convection: Heat goes
through a moving medium or is
carried away by a moving medium
(fluid).
3. Heat radiation: Heat travels
through a space with or without a
medium
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 2.1.1 Conductive heat transfer
 The rate of heat conduction
through a plane layer is
proportional to the
temperature difference
across the layer and the
heat transfer area, but is
inversely proportional to
the thickness of the layer
Fourier’s law of heat
conduction

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Example 01
One face of a copper 3 cm thick is maintained at
400 °C, and the other face is maintained at 100
°C. How much heat is transferred through the
plate?

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 Thermal conductivity
thermal conductivity, , is the The values of thermal
property of a material's ability conductivity (ki) of
to conduct heat each pure constituent
 measured in watts per kelvin-meter

predicts the rate of energy loss

(in watts, W) through a piece
of material
Measurements
1. Steady State or
2. Transient or Unsteady

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 2. Convective Heat transfer
Convection involves the transfer of
heat by the mixing and motion of
macroscopic portions of a fluid.E.g
Boiling and condensation
 Energy transfer between a solid
surface and the adjacent liquid or
gas that is in motion
 hot copper plate in the air

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Types of convection
1. Natural (free )
convection
Occurs by temp
difference (density
difference)
2. Forced convection

Caused by external
agency
Pump ,fan The cooling of a boiled egg by forced and
natural convection

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 Heat Convection Equation

Heat transfer coefficient Area contacting fluids (m2)

(watts/m2oC)

PH = h A (T2 -T1)
Heat flow
(watts)

Temperature
difference (oC)

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Example
1. The rate of heat transfer per unit area from a
metal plate is 1000 W/m 2. The surface
temperature of the plate is 120°C,and
ambient temperature is 20°C . Estimate the
convective heat transfer coefficient?

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 3.Radiation Heat transfer
occurs b/n two surfaces
by the emission and later
absorption of
electromagnetic waves (or
photons)
radiation requires no
physical medium for its
propagation
E.g solar radiation.

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26.3 Stefan-Boltzmann formula

Surface area (m2)

P = s AT4
Power
(watts)

Absolute temperature
Stefan-Boltzmann constant (K)
5.67 x 10-8 watts/m2K4)

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All objects at a temperature above 0 Absolute emit thermal
radiation.

the rate of heat emission (or radiation) from

an object of a surface area A is expressed by:

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Example
1. Calculate the rate of heat energy emitted by
100 m 2 of a polished iron surface (emissivity
= 0.06) as shown in Figure E4.5 . The
temperature of the surface is 37°C.

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Important key points
How is the heat transfer?

Mode of heat transfer

Mechanism of conduction

Mechanism of Convection

Mechanism of radiation

Fundamental equation of heat transfer

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Out line
Definition of heat exchangers

Types of heat exchangers

Heat transfer in heat exchangers

Logarithmic-mean temperature difference

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 2.2 Heat exchanger

How will you define heat exchanger ?

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 2.2 Heat Exchanger
A device whose primary purpose
is the transfer of energy between
two fluids is named a Heat
Exchanger
Heat exchangers are commonly
used in practice in a wide range
of applications, from heating and
air conditioning systems in a
household, to chemical
processing and power
production in large plants
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 Brainstorming activity

What is the situation of heat transfer in

heat exchanger? Discuss in group of four
or five and then present in the plenary

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 Heat exchangers
The transfer of Heat is
accomplished from the hot fluid
to the wall or tube surface by
CONVECTION, through the
tube wall or plate by
CONDUCTION, and then by
CONVECTION to the cold fluid
The equipment goes under many
names, such as boilers,
pasteurizers, jacketed pans,
freezers, air heaters, cookers,
ovens and so on
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What types of heat exchangers are
there? Support with example

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 Types of Heat Exchangers

 Common heat exchangers include

a. Double-pipe heat exchanger
b. Shell-and-tube heat exchanger
c. Cross-flow heat exchange
 In practice, engineers often have
to do the following:
a. Selection
b. Designing
c. Prediction

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 Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
The simplest form of a
heat exchanger consists of
two concentric cylindrical
tubes
One fluid flows inside one
pipe and the other in the
annular space between
the pipes

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 Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
The fluids can be in co .
current or
countercurrent flow
The fluids can flow in the
same direction through the
equipment, this is called
parallel flow; they can flow
in opposite directions, called
counter flow; they can flow
at right angles to each other,
called cross flow.

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 Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
For the co-current-flow
configuration, the
temperature difference T is
large at the inlet but
decreases exponentially
towards the outlet.

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Heat Transfer in Heat Exchangers
Heat exchangers operate for long periods with no
change in the operating conditions; thus, they can
be modeled as steady-flow devices
for which the following assumptions are valid:
The overall heat transfer coefficient, U, is constant
with time
The mass flow rate of each fluid remains constant
 The specific heats of the fluids are constant.
 The temperature of the two fluids is constant over a
specific cross-section.
 The outer surface is perfectly insulated

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Heat Transfer in Heat Exchangers
the rate of heat transfer, Q, from the hot fluid is
equal to the rate of heat transfer to the cold one.
 Energy given up by hot fluid:

 Energy gained by cold fluid

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 Log-Mean-Temperature-Difference
The T difference between the hot and cold fluids, ∆T
, varies along the length of the heat exchanger.

we have to express ∆T in terms of a suitable mean

temperature difference, the LOG MEAN
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE, ∆Tlm .
This can be determined by simply applying the
design equations, for countercurrent and co-current
flows
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Why do we use log mean temp.
difference (LMTD)?

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 Example

Hint specific heat for water is 4186J/Kg. K

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Solution

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Class activity
Cooling of milk in a pipe heat exchanger
Milk is flowing into a pipe cooler and passes
through a tube of 2.5 cm internal diameter at a rate
of 0.4 kg s-1. Its initial temperature is 49°C and it is
wished to cool it to 18°C using a stirred bath of
constant 10°C water round the pipe. What length
of pipe would be required? Assume an overall
coefficient of heat transfer from the bath to the
milk of 900 J m-2 s-1 °C-1, and that the specific heat
of milk is 3890 J kg-1 °C-1

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Home work (5 pts)
Water chilling in a counter flow heat exchanger
In a counter flow heat exchanger, water is being chilled
by a sodium chloride brine. If the rate of flow of the
brine is 1.8 kg s-1 and that of the water is 1.05 kg s-1,
estimate the temperature to which the water is cooled
if the brine enters at -8°C and leaves at 10°C, and if the
water enters the exchanger at 32°C. If the area of the
heat-transfer surface of this exchanger is 55 m2, what is
the overall heat-transfer coefficient? Take the specific
heats to be 3.38 and 4.18 kJ kg-1 °C-1 for the brine and
the water respectively.
With heat exchangers a small sketch is often helpful

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Which type of flow is efficient for better
design heat exchanger ? Why?

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Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger
 Outline:

I. Review
II. Shell-and-tube equipment
III. Rate equation and DTTM

IV. Ten Minute Problem - FG for multiple pass HE

 V. Example Problem - Handout

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 Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger
The most widely used types
of heat exchangers in the
process industry
This can be 1-shell pass and
1-tube pass or multi-pass
shell and multi-tube pass
heat exchangers
The flow arrangement can be
both co-current-flow and
counter-current-flow

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Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger
Determination of the average temperature difference,
∆Tlm, is very complex for these types of heat exchangers.
In the top half of the exchanger as illustrated in Figure
above, there is parallel flow and in the bottom half,
counter flow
For this reason, it is common practice to introduce a
correction factor, Ft , into ∆T lm. The heat transfer rate is
therefore given by

where Tlm is that for the counter-flow double-pipe heat

exchanger with the same fluid inlet and outlet
temperatures

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Example

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Homework

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 Cross-flow heat Exchangers
the two fluids usually move
perpendicular to each other
The cross-flow is further
classified as unmixed and
mixed flow
 unmixed : the plate fins
force the fluid to flow through
a particular inter fin spacing
and prevent it from moving
in the transverse direction
mixed flow: the fluid is
free to move in the
transverse direction
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Derivation of LMTD(Tlm)

Find mass flowrate…

Calculate inlet/outlet temperature of the fluid
Calculate total Heat transfer
Draw temperature profile (counter flow)
For Calculation of LMTD
 First calculate usual ∆tm of counter flow
 Now find correction factor
 For F, first find P and R

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Summary
Definition of Heat exchangers
Classification
 Flow arrengemt
Types of heat exchangers
 Double pipe
 Shall and tube
 Cross flow
Heat transfer design and analysis
 LTDM (∆Tlm )

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Project work on heat exchanger
Group 1 : double pipe He.( 1----9)
a. Theory (principles )
b. Application
Group 2. shell and tube H e. ( 10 – 18)
c. Theory (principles )
d. Application
Group 3. cross flow ( compact ) He. ( 19 -26)
e. Theory (principles )
f. Application
PRSESENTATION WILL BE HELD ON FRIDAY
18/03/16
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Quiz 1

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Evaporation

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Section out line
Introduction

The
 Single Effect Evaporator
Heat Transfer in Evaporators

Condensers

Multiple-Effect Evaporation

Feeding of Multiple Effect Evaporators

Advantages of Multiple Effect Evaporators

Evaporation of Heat-Sensitive Materials

Evaporation Equipment

Summary

Problems


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What is Evaporation?
What is evaporator ?

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 Introduction
Evaporation is an important unit operation commonly
employed to remove water from dilute liquid foods to
obtain concentrated liquid products
Removal of water from foods provides :
 microbiological stability and
 assists in reducing transportation and storage costs.
Considered as a piece of process plant, the evaporator
has two principal functions,
 to exchange heat and
 to separate the vapor that is formed from the liquid.

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Important practical considerations
in evaporators are the:
 maximum allowable temperature,
below 100°C.
 promotion of circulation of the
liquid across the heat transfer
surfaces
 viscosity of the fluid
 tendency to foam which makes
separation of liquid and vapour
difficult.

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What is the difference between evaporation
dehydration and distillation ?

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Evaporation differs from dehydration:
 the final product of the evaporation process remains in liquid state
Evaporation also differs from distillation,
 the vapors produced in the evaporator are not further
divided into fractions.
The basic factors that affect the rate of evaporation are
the:
 rate at which heat can be transferred to the liquid,
 quantity of heat required to evaporate each kg of water,
 maximum allowable temperature of the liquid,
 pressure at which the evaporation takes place,
 changes that may occur in the foodstuff during the course
of the      evaporation process
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Principle
 an evaporator consists of a heat exchanger enclosed in a large
chamber
The product inside the evaporation chamber is kept under
vacuum
 to increase the temperature difference between steam and the product
 minimizing heat damage

The vapors produced are conveyed through a condenser to a

vacuum system
The steam condenses inside the heat exchanger and the
condensate is discarded.
Evaporator is appropriate for heat sensitivity Food
products
involve reducing the temperature for boiling as well as the time of
heating

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Evaporator can classified into two:
1. single-effect evaporator
the vapors produced are discarded without further
utilizing their inherent
2. Multiple -effect evaporator
 the vapors are reused as the heating medium in
another evaporator chamber.

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 1 .The single effect evaporator
The typical evaporator is
made up of three
functional sections
 the heat exchanger,
 the evaporating section,
 the liquid boils and
evaporates
 the separator
 the vapor leaves the liquid
and passes off to the
condenser

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 Heat Transfer in Evaporators
Heat transfer in evaporators is governed by :
 the equations for heat transfer to boiling liquids and
 the convection and conduction equations
• The heat must be provided from a source at a
suitable temperature and this is condensing steam
in most cases
• Calculations on evaporators can be carried out
combining mass and energy balances with the
principles of heat transfer.

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 Design of a single-effect evaporator

Mass balance on flow stream and product

solid

Where mf is the mass flow rate of dilute

liquid feed (kg/s),
mv is the mass flow rate of vapor
(kg/s),and
mp is the mass flow rate of concentrated
product (kg/s

Where xf is the solid fraction in the feed

stream and and
xpis the solid fraction in the product
stream
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An enthalpy balance conducted on the evaporator
system

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For the heat exchanger, the following expression
gives the rate of heat transfer:

What happen on the overall heat-transfer coefficient and boiling point of

product?

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Example

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 Solution

Step 1 step 2 .

Step 3 To use the enthalpy balance of Equation

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 Example1.Single effect evaporator: steam usage and heat transfer surface
 A single effect evaporator is required to concentrate a solution from
10% solids to 30% solids at the rate of 250 kg of feed per hour. If the
pressure in the evaporator is 77 kPa absolute, and if steam is available
at 200 kPa gauge, calculate the quantity of steam required per hour and
the area of heat transfer surface if the overall heat transfer coefficient is
1700 J m-2 s-1 °C-1.
Assume that the temperature of the feed is 18°C and that the boiling
point of the solution under the pressure of 77 kPa absolute is 91°C.
Assume, also, that the specific heat of the solution is the same as for
water, that is 4.186 x 103 J kg-1°C-1, and the latent heat of vaporization of
the solution is the same as that for water under the same conditions.
 the condensing temperature of steam at 200 kPa (gauge)[300 kPa
absolute] is 134°C and latent heat 2164 kJ kg-1; the condensing
temperature at 77 kPa (abs.) is 91°C and latent heat is 2281 kJ kg-1.

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Solution
Mass balance
  Solids Liquids Total
  Feed 25 225 250
  Product 25 58 83
  Evaporation 167
Heat balance
Heat available per kg of steam
                                       = latent heat + sensible heat in cooling to 90°C
                                       = 2.160 x 106 + 4.186 x 103(135 - 90)
                                       = 2.160 x 106 + 1.8 x 105
                                      
Heat required by the solution = 2.34 x 106
                                       = latent heat + sensible heat in heating from 18°C to 90°C
                                       = 2283 x 103 x 167 + 250 x 4.186 x 103 x (90 - 18)
                                       = 3.81 x 108 + 7.5 x 107
                                       = 4.56 x 108 J h-1
Now, heat from steam       =  heat required by the solution,
Therefore quantity of steam required per hour = (4.56 x 108)/(2.34 x 106)
                                       = 195 kg h-1

Quantity of steam/kg of water evaporated = 195/167

                                       = 1.17 kg steam/kg water.
Heat-transfer area
Temperature of condensing steam = 135°C.
Temperature difference across the evaporator = (135 - 90) = 45°C.
Writing the heat transfer equation for q in joules/sec,
                                     q = UA DT
              (4.56 x 108)/3600 = 1700 x A x 45
                                     A = 1.65 m2
Area of heat transfer surface = 1.65 m2
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 Multiple effect evaporation
An evaporator is essentially
a heat exchanger in which a
liquid is boiled to give a
vapour
a low pressure steam
generator
make use of the steam to
produced for further heating
q1 = U1A1(Ts - T1) = U1A1∆T1   
q2 = U2A2(T1 - T2) = U2A2 ∆ T2

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If the evaporators are working in balance, then all
of the vapours from the first effect are condensing
and in their turn evaporating vapours in the
second effect
Also assuming that heat losses can be neglected,
             q1 = q2
if the evaporators are so constructed thatA1 = A2

   U2/U1=∆T1/∆T2.                                                              

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 Feeding of Multiple Effect Evaporators
1. Forward feed operation
 the steam provided by the
evaporation in the first effect
will boil off liquid in the second
effect, the boiling temperature
in the second effect must be
lower and so that effect must
be under lower pressure.
 the liquid feed (flow without
pumping )progress is simplest
if it passes from effect one to
effect two

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 Backward feed
feed may pass in the reverse
direction, starting in the last
effect and proceeding to the
first, but in this case the
liquid has to be pumped
from one effect to the next
against the pressure drops.

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Advantages of Multiple Effect Evaporators
Cost effective for heat economy
In the first effect,q1 = U1A1DT1 and
in the second effect, q2 = U2A2DT2
A single-effect evaporator, qs = UsAsDTs
Since the overall conditions are the same, DTs =
DT1+ DT2
U1 = U2 = Us, and A1 = A2.
How to find As ?

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                    DT1 = DT2
               and DTs= DT1 + DT2 = 2DT1

                   DT1 = 0.5DTs

        Nowq1 + q2 = U1A1DT1 + U2A2DT2
                           = U1(A1+ A2) DTs/2
          but q1 + q2 = qs
                 Andqs = USAsDTs
so that (A1 + A2)/2 = 2A1/2 = As
            That is A1 = A2 = As

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Reading assigment
Evaporation of heat sensitive materials
Evaporation equipment

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3. Mass Transfer unit operations

what do you mean by mass transfer ?

What unit operation involves for mass
transfer?

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 3. Mass Transfer unit operations

Introduction
Mass transfer is restricted to the migration of a
constituent of a fluid or a component of a mixture
The migration occurs because of changes in the
physical equilibrium of the system caused by the
concentration differences
Unit operation involves in mass transfer are:
 Distillation
 Drying /dehydration
 Salting /desalting
 Crystallization
 Membrane separation

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 3.1. Drying

Dehydration (or drying) is defined as the application of heat under

controlled conditions to remove the majority of the water normally present

in a food.

The main purpose of dehydration is to extend the shelf life of foods by a

reduction in water activity

 inhibits microbial growth and enzyme activity

 reduction in weight and bulk of food reduces transport and storage

costs

 provides greater variety and convenience for the consumer.

Drying is accomplished by vaporizing the water that is contained in the

food, and to do this the latent heat of vaporization must be supplied.

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There are two important process-controlling factors that enter into the unit operation of drying:

 (a) transfer of heat to provide the necessary latent heat of vaporization,

(b) movement of water or water vapors through the food material and then away from it

to effect separation of water from foodstuff

• Drying causes deterioration of both the eating quality and the

nutritive value of the food
design and operation of dehydration equipment
selection of appropriate drying conditions for indiviual foods
sugar, coffee, milk, potato, flour, beans, pulses, nuts, breakfast cereals, tea
and spices.

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 Mechanism of drying
When hot air is blown over a
wet food, heat is transferred
to the surface, and latent heat
of vaporization causes water
to evaporate.
Water vapor diffuses through
a boundary film of air and is
carried away by the moving
air
 This creates a region of lower
water vapour pressure at the
surface of the food
 water vapour pressure
gradient is established
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Water moves to the surface by the following mechanisms:

(1) Liquid movement by capillary forces;

(2) Diffusion of liquids, caused by differences in the

concentration of solutes in different regions of the food;

(3) Diffusion of liquids which are adsorbed in layers at

the surfaces of solid components of the food;

(4) Water vapor diffusion in air spaces within the food

caused by vapour pressure gradients

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Foods are characterized as
 hygroscopic food and
 non-hygroscopic food

What the difference b/n them?

Hygroscopic foods are those in which the partial
pressure of water vapour varies with the moisture
content
Non-hygroscopic foods have a constant water
vapour pressure at different moisture contents.
The difference is found by using sorption
isotherms

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When food is placed into a drier, there is a

short initial settling down period as the

surface heats up to the wet-bulb
temperature (AB )
Drying then commence and, provided that

water moves from the interior of the food at

the same rate as it evaporates from the
surface, the surface remains wet= constant-
rate period
Drying is continues until certain critical

moisture content is reached (BC in Figs

3.2(a) and (b)
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the rate of drying declines
gradually during the 'constant'-
rate period.

Thus the critical point is not

fixed for a given food and

depends on the amount of food
in the drier and the rate of
drying.
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The three characteristics of air that are necessary
for successful drying in the constant rate period
are:
(1) A moderately high dry-bulb temperature,
(2) A low RH and
(3) A high air velocity.
When the moisture content of the food falls below
the critical moisture content, the rate of drying
slowly decreases until it approaches zero at the
equilibrium moisture content (that is the food
comes into equilibrium with the drying air). This is
known as the falling-rate period.

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Non-hygroscopic foods have a single falling-rate
period (CD in Figs 3.3(a) and (b)),
hygroscopic foods have two periods.
1.the plane of evaporation moves inside the food- and water
diffuses through the dry solids to the drying air.
o It ends when the plane of evaporation reaches the centre of
the food and the partial pressure of water falls below the
saturated water vapour pressure.
2. when the partial pressure of water is below the saturated
vapour pressure, and drying is by desorption.
During the falling-rate period, the rate of water
movement from the interior of the food to the surface
falls below the rate at which water evaporates to the
surrounding air === the surface therefore dries out

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Drying using heated air

Psychrometrics
What does it mean?

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Psychometrics
The capacity of air to remove moisture from a food
depends on the temperature and the amount of water
vapor already carried by the air
The content of water vapor in air is expressed as:
 absolute humidity (the mass of water vapor per unit mass of dry
air (in kilograms per kilogram) termed moisture content
 relative humidity (RH) (in per cent) (the ratio of the partial
pressure of water vapor in the air to the pressure of saturated
water vapor at the same temperature
Psychrometry is the study of the interrelationships of
the temperature and humidity of air.

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 Properties of Psychometrics charts

Dry bulb (DB) temperature

The temperature of the air,
measured by a thermometer bulb,
is termed the dry-bulb
temperature
Locate the vertical line for
34°F dry-bulb temperature on
a psychrometric chart (

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 Wet bulb (WB) temperature
If the thermometer bulb is
surrounded by a wet cloth,
heat is removed by
evaporation of the water
from the cloth and the
temperature falls

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Relative humidity (RH)
This is the ratio of the
fraction of water vapor
in the air to the fraction
of saturated moist air at
the same temperature
and pressure
Find the intersection of
the 34°F dry-bulb
temperature vertical line
and the 70% relative
humidity curved line

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 Dew point (DP) temperature
The dew point is the temperature
at which air becomes saturated
with moisture (100% RH)
It is equivalent to a wet bulb
temperature at 100% relative
humidity
Determine the dew point
temperature and wet-bulb
temperature when the dry-
bulb temperature is 38°F and
the relative humidity is 65%.

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Example 1
1. Psychrometric chart:
Given: T = 25°C
Tw=20°C
Required: (a) RH, (b) Tdp
, (c) HR
2. Wet Bulb, Relative Humidity and Dew Point Lines on
Psychrometric Charts for Dry Bulb Temperature of 34°F
and Relative Humidity of 70%.

3.: Given the ambient temperature is 70°F measured by a dry

bulb thermometer and 60°F measured by a wet bulb
thermometer, what is the relative humidity?

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An air conditioning system is not working well.
The temperature of the evaporator coil is 53°F.
The air in the room is at 76°F and 40% relative
humidity. Will the air conditioner remove
moisture from this air?

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Class activity
1. Find the wet-bulb temperature of a moist air mixture
when the dry-bulb temperature is 36°F and the
relative humidity is 30%.
2. Determine the dry-bulb temperature of a moist air
mixture when the relative humidity is 70% and the
wet-bulb temperature is 35°F
3. Determine the relative humidity of a moist air mixture
when the dry-bulb temperature is 37°F and the wet-
bulb temperature is 33°F
4. Determine the dew point temperature of a moist air
mixture when the dry-bulb temperature is 36°F and
the relative humidity is 80%.

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The temperature of the air, measured by a thermometer bulb,
is termed the dry-bulb temperature
If the thermometer bulb is surrounded by a wet cloth, heat is
removed by evaporation of the water from the cloth and the
temperature falls. This lower temperature is called the wet-
bulb temperature
The difference between the two temperatures is used to find
the relative humidity of air on the psychometric chart
The dew point is the temperature at which air becomes
saturated with moisture (100% RH)
Adiabatic cooling lines are the parallel straight lines sloping
across the chart

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 Sample problems. 3.1

Using the psychrometric chart calculate the following

(1) The absolute humidity of air which has 50% RH and a dry-bulb
temperature of 60°C;
(2) The wet-bulb temperature under these conditions;
(3) the RH of air having a wet-bulb temperature of 45°C and a dry-
bulb temperature of 75°C;
(4) The dew point of air cooled adiabatically from a dry-bulb
temperature of 55°C and 30% RH;
(5) the change in RH of air with a wet-bulb temperature of 39°C,
heated from a dry-bulb temperature of 50°C to a dry-bulb
temperature of 86°C;
(6) The change in RH of air with a wet-bulb temperature of 35°C,
cooled adiabati­cally from a dry-bulb temperature of 70°C to 40°C.

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Class activity
1. Find the wet-bulb temperature of a moist air mixture
when the dry-bulb temperature is 36°F and the
relative humidity is 30%.
2. Determine the dry-bulb temperature of a moist air
mixture when the relative humidity is 70% and the
wet-bulb temperature is 35°F
3. Determine the relative humidity of a moist air mixture
when the dry-bulb temperature is 37°F and the wet-
bulb temperature is 33°F
4. Determine the dew point temperature of a moist air
mixture when the dry-bulb temperature is 36°F and
the relative humidity is 80%.

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Calculation of drying rate
The rate of drying depends on the properties of
the drier:
 the dry-bulb temperature,
 RH and velocity of the air, and the surface heat transfer
coefficient,
 the properties of the food (the moisture content, surface-to-
volume ratio and the surface temperature and rate of
moisture loss
Factors which influence the rate of drying include
 The fat content of the food
 The method of preparation of the food
 The amount of food placed into a drier in relation to its size

8/18/21 01:53 PM
The rate of heat transfer is found using
Q =hc A (ϴa - ϴb)
The rate of mass transfer is found using
mc = KgA(Hs - Ha)
during the constant-rate period, equilibrium exists
between the rate of heat transfer to the food and the
rate of mass transfer in the form of moisture loss from
the food

hc = 14.3G0.8 (for parallel air flow)

hc = 24.2G0.37 (And for perpendicular air flow)
 
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For a tray of food, in which water evaporates only
from the upper surface, the drying time is found
using

The drying time in the constant rate period is

found using

For water evaporating from a spherical droplet in

a spray drier, the drying time is found using

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Sample problem
A conveyor drier is required to dry peas from an initial moisture
content of 78% to 16% moisture (wet-weight basis), in a bed 10
cm deep which has a void age of 0.4. Air at 85°C with a relative
humidity of 10% is blown perpendicularly through the bed at
0.9 m s-1. The drier belt measures 0.75 m wide and 4 m long.
Assuming that drying takes place from the entire surface of the
peas and there is no shrinkage, calculate the drying time and
energy consumption in both the constant-and the falling-rate
periods. (Additional data: the equilibrium moisture content of
the peas is 9%, the critical moisture content 300% (dry-weight
basis), the average diameter 6 mm, the bulk density 610 kg m -3,
the latent heat of evaporation 2300 kJ kg -1, the saturated
watervapour pressure at wet-bulb temperature 61.5Torr and the
mass transfer coefficient 0.015 kgm-2 s-1.)

8/18/21 01:53 PM
 Distillation

Distillation is a commonly used

method for purifying liquids and
separating mixtures of liquids into
their individual components
In the organic lab, distillation is
used for purifying solvents and
liquid reaction products
At any temperature, some
molecules of a liquid possess
enough kinetic energy to escape
into the vapor phase (evaporation)
and some of the molecules in the
vapor phase return to the liquid
(condensation)

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An equilibrium is set up,
with molecules going
back and forth between
liquid and vapor.
 At higher temperatures,
more molecules possess
enough kinetic energy to
escape, which results in
a greater number of
molecules being present
in

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Distillation has two main methods in practice

1. single stage
3 important types of
distillation
a. Equilibrium or flash,
b. Simple batch or
differential and
c. simple steam distillation
2. recovering and
condensing the vapors

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THANK YOU !!

8/18/21 01:53 PM