STATISTICAL

PROCESS CONTROL

Dr. Debadyuti Das

Professor
FMS, Delhi University
Statistical Process Control (SPC)
• Statistical Process Control
• monitoring production process to
detect and prevent poor quality UCL
• Sample
• subset of items produced to use
for inspection
• Control Charts LCL
• process is within statistical
control limits
Process Variability
• Random • Non-Random
• inherent in a process • special causes
• depends on equipment • identifiable and correctable
and machinery, materials, • include equipment out of
engineering, operator, adjustment, defective
and system of materials, changes in parts
measurement or materials, broken
• natural occurrences machinery or equipment,
operator fatigue or poor
work methods, or errors due
to lack of training
 Quality Measures:
Attributes and Variables
• Attribute
• A characteristic which is evaluated with a discrete response
• good/bad; yes/no; correct/incorrect

• Variable
• A characteristic that is continuous and can be measured
• Weight, length, voltage, volume
 SPC Applied to Services
• Hospitals
• timeliness & quickness of care, staff responses to requests,
accuracy of lab tests, cleanliness, courtesy, accuracy of paperwork,
speed of admittance & checkouts
• Grocery stores
• waiting time to check out, frequency of out-of-stock items, quality of
food items, cleanliness, customer complaints, checkout register
errors
• Airlines
• flight delays, lost luggage & luggage handling, waiting time at ticket
counters & check-in, agent & flight attendant courtesy, accurate
flight information, cabin cleanliness & maintenance
 SPC Applied to Services
• Fast-food restaurants
• waiting time for service, customer complaints, cleanliness, food
quality, order accuracy, employee courtesy
• Catalogue-order companies
• order accuracy, operator knowledge & courtesy, packaging,
delivery time, phone order waiting time
• Insurance companies
• billing accuracy, timeliness of claims processing, agent availability
& response time
Where to Use Control Charts
• Process
• Has a tendency to go out of control
• Is particularly harmful and costly if it goes out of control
• Examples
• At the beginning of a process to check the quality of raw
materials and parts or supplies and deliveries for a service
operation.
• Before a costly or irreversible point, after which product is
difficult to rework or correct
• Before and after assembly or painting operations that might
cover defects
• Before the outgoing final product or service is delivered
Process Control Chart

Abnormal variation Out of

due to assignable sources control
UCL

Mean
Normal variation
due to chance
LCL
Abnormal variation
due to assignable sources

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Sample number
Sampling Distribution

Sampling
distribution

Process
distribution

Mean
Control Limits are based on the Normal
Curve

x
m
z
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Standard
Standard
deviation
deviation
units
unitsoror“z”
“z”
units.
units.
Control Limits

We establish the Upper Control Limits (UCL) and

the Lower Control Limits (LCL) with plus or minus
3 standard deviations from some x-bar or mean
value. Based on this we can expect 99.73% of our
sample observations to fall within these limits.

99.73%
x
LCL UCL
SPC Errors
• Type I error
• Concluding a process is not in control when it actually is.
• Type II error
• Concluding a process is in control when it is not.
Control Charts for Variables
Variables generate data that are measured.
• Mean control charts
• Used to monitor the central tendency of a process.
• X bar charts

• Range control charts

• Used to monitor the process dispersion

• R charts
Mean and Range Charts

(process mean is
shifting upward)
Sampling
Distribution

UCL

x-Chart Detects shift

LCL

UCL

Does not
R-chart
LCL
detect shift
Mean and Range Charts

Sampling
Distribution (process variability is increasing)

UCL

Does not
x-Chart
LCL
reveal increase

UCL

R-chart Reveals increase

LCL
Control Chart for Attributes

• p-Chart - Control chart used to monitor the proportion of

defectives in a process
• c-Chart - Control chart used to monitor the number of
defects per unit

Attributes generate data that are counted.

Use of p-Charts

• When observations can be placed into two

categories.
• Good or bad
• Pass or fail
• Operate or don’t operate
Use of c-Charts

• Used only when the number of occurrences per unit of

measure can be counted; non-occurrences cannot be
counted.
• Scratches, chips, dents, or errors per item
• Cracks or faults per unit of distance
• Breaks or Tears per unit of area
• Bacteria or pollutants per unit of volume
• Calls, complaints, failures per unit of time
x-bar Chart:  Known
UCL = x + z x
LCL = x - z x
Where
- - -
= x1 + x2 + ... + xk
X
k
s = process standard deviation
sx = standard deviation of sample means = / n
k = number of samples (subgroups)
n = sample size (number of observations)
x-bar Chart Example:  Known
Observations(Slip-Ring Diameter, cm) n
-
Sample k 1 2 3 4 5 x

We know σ = .08
x-bar Chart Example:  Known

= 50.09
_____
X= = 5.01
10

= =
UCL = x + z x - LCL = x - z x -

= 5.01 + 3(.08
10/ ) = 5.01 - 3(.08
10/ )
= 5.09 = 4.93
x-bar Chart Example:  Unknown

_ _
= =
UCL = x + A2R LCL = x - A2R

where
=
_ x = average of the sample means
R = average range value
Control Sample
Size Factor for X-chart Factors for R-chart

Chart
n A2 D3 D4
2 1.880 0.000 3.267
3 1.023 0.000 2.575

Factors
4 0.729 0.000 2.282
5 0.577 0.000 2.114
6 0.483 0.000 2.004
7 0.419 0.076 1.924
8 0.373 0.136 1.864
9 0.337 0.184 1.816
10 0.308 0.223 1.777
11 0.285 0.256 1.744
12 0.266 0.283 1.717
13 0.249 0.307 1.693
14 0.235 0.328 1.672
15 0.223 0.347 1.653
16 0.212 0.363 1.637
17 0.203 0.378 1.622
18 0.194 0.391 1.609
19 0.187 0.404 1.596
20 0.180 0.415 1.585
21 0.173 0.425 1.575
22 0.167 0.435 1.565
23 0.162 0.443 1.557
24 0.157 0.452 1.548
25 0.153 0.459 1.541
 x-bar Chart Example:  Unknown
OBSERVATIONS (SLIP- RING DIAMETER, CM)
SAMPLE k 1 2 3 4 5 x R
1 5.02 5.01 4.94 4.99 4.96 4.98 0.08
2 5.01 5.03 5.07 4.95 4.96 5.00 0.12
3 4.99 5.00 4.93 4.92 4.99 4.97 0.08
4 5.03 4.91 5.01 4.98 4.89 4.96 0.14
5 4.95 4.92 5.03 5.05 5.01 4.99 0.13
6 4.97 5.06 5.06 4.96 5.03 5.01 0.10
7 5.05 5.01 5.10 4.96 4.99 5.02 0.14
8 5.09 5.10 5.00 4.99 5.08 5.05 0.11
9 5.14 5.10 4.99 5.08 5.09 5.08 0.15
10 5.01 4.98 5.08 5.07 4.99 5.03 0.10
Totals 50.09 1.15
x-bar Chart Example:  Unknown
_ ∑R 1.15
____ ___
R= = k = 0.115
10

= 50.09
_____
x= åx =
__ = 5.01 cm
10
k
_
=
UCL = x + A2R = 5.01 + (0.58)(0.115) = 5.08

_
=
LCL = x - A2R = 5.01 - (0.58)(0.115) = 4.94
x- bar 5.10 –
Chart 5.08 –
Example 5.06 –
UCL = 5.08

5.04 –

5.02 – =
Mean x = 5.01

5.00 –

4.98 –

4.96 –
LCL = 4.94
4.94 –

4.92 –
| | | | | | | | | |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sample number
R- Chart

UCL = D4R LCL = D3R

åR
R=
k
Where
R = range of each sample
k = number of samples (sub groups)
 R-Chart Example
OBSERVATIONS (SLIP- RING DIAMETER, CM)
SAMPLE k 1 2 3 4 5 x R
1 5.02 5.01 4.94 4.99 4.96 4.98 0.08
2 5.01 5.03 5.07 4.95 4.96 5.00 0.12
3 4.99 5.00 4.93 4.92 4.99 4.97 0.08
4 5.03 4.91 5.01 4.98 4.89 4.96 0.14
5 4.95 4.92 5.03 5.05 5.01 4.99 0.13
6 4.97 5.06 5.06 4.96 5.03 5.01 0.10
7 5.05 5.01 5.10 4.96 4.99 5.02 0.14
8 5.09 5.10 5.00 4.99 5.08 5.05 0.11
9 5.14 5.10 4.99 5.08 5.09 5.08 0.15
10 5.01 4.98 5.08 5.07 4.99 5.03 0.10
Totals 50.09 1.15
R-Chart Example
_
UCL = D4R = 2.11(0.115) = 0.243

_
LCL = D3R = 0(0.115) = 0

Retrieve chart factors D3 and D4

R-Chart Example
0.28 –
0.24 – UCL = 0.243
0.20 –
Range

0.16 – R = 0.115
0.12 –
0.08 –
0.04 – LCL = 0
| | | | | | | | | |
0–
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sample number
 p-Chart
UCL = p + zp
LCL = p - zp
z = number of standard deviations from process average
p = sample proportion defective; estimates process mean
p = standard deviation of sample proportion

p(1 - p)
p =
n
Construction of p-Chart
NUMBER OF PROPORTION
SAMPLE # DEFECTIVES DEFECTIVE
1 6 .06
2 0 .00
3 4 .04
: : :
: : :
20 18 .18
200

20 samples of 100 pairs of jeans

Construction of p-Chart
total defectives
p= = 200 / 20(100) = 0.10
total sample observations

p(1 - p) 0.10(1 - 0.10)

UCL = p + z = 0.10 + 3
n 100
UCL = 0.190

p(1 - p) 0.10(1 - 0.10)

LCL = p - z = 0.10 - 3
n 100
LCL = 0.010
Construction of p-Chart
0.20

0.18 UCL = 0.190

0.16

0.14
Proportion defective

0.12
p = 0.10
0.10

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02 LCL = 0.010

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Sample number
Use of c-chart:
• Use only when the number of occurrences per unit of
measure can be counted; non-occurrences cannot be
counted.
• Scratches, chips, dents, or errors per item
• Cracks or faults per unit of distance
• Breaks or Tears per unit of area
• Bacteria or pollutants per unit of volume
• Calls, complaints, failures per unit of time

UCLc  c  z c
LCLc  c  z c
 c-Chart
UCL = c + zc
c = c
LCL = c - zc

where

c = number of defects per sample

c-Chart
Number of defects in 15 sample rooms

NUMBER
SAMPLE OF
DEFECTS
190
1 12 c= = 12.67
15
2 8
3 16 UCL = c + zc

: : = 12.67 + 3
= 23.35
12.67

: :
15 15 LCL = c - zc
190 = 12.67 - 3 12.67
= 1.99
c-Chart
24
UCL = 23.35
21

18

Number of defects
c = 12.67

15

12

3 LCL = 1.99

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Sample number
 Control Chart Patterns
• Run
• sequence of sample values that display same
characteristic

• Pattern test
• determines if observations within limits of a control chart
display a nonrandom pattern
 Control Chart Patterns
• To identify a pattern look for:
• 8 consecutive points on one side of the center line
• 8 consecutive points up or down
• 2 out of 3 consecutive points in zone A (on one side of
center line)
• 4 out of 5 consecutive points in zone A or B (on one
side of center line)
 Control Chart Patterns

UCL UCL

LCL LCL

Sample observations Sample observations

consistently below the consistently above the
center line center line
 Control Chart Patterns

UCL UCL

LCL LCL

Sample observations Sample observations

consistently increasing consistently decreasing
 Zones for Pattern Tests
UCL =
3 sigma = x + A2R
Zone A
=
2 sigma = x + 2 (A2R)
3
Zone B
=
1 sigma = x + 1 (A2R)
3

Process Zone C =
x
average
Zone C
=
1 sigma = x - 1 (A2R)
3
Zone B
=
2 sigma = x - 2 (A2R)
3
Zone A
=
LCL 3 sigma = x - A2R
| | | | | | | | | | | | |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Sample number
Performing a Pattern Test

SAMPLE x ABOVE/BELOW UP/DOWN ZONE

1 4.98 B — B
2 5.00 B U C
3 4.95 B D A
4 4.96 B D A
5 4.99 B U C
6 5.01 — U C
7 5.02 A U C
8 5.05 A U B
9 5.08 A U A
10 5.03 A D B
 Sample Size Determination

• Attribute charts require larger sample sizes

• 50 to 100 parts in a sample

• Variable charts require smaller samples

• 2 to 10 parts in a sample
Process Capability
• Compare natural variability to design variability
• Natural variability
• What we measure with control charts
• Process mean = 8.80 oz, Std dev. = 0.12 oz
• Tolerances
• Design specifications reflecting product requirements
• Net weight = 9.0 oz  0.5 oz
• Tolerances are  0.5 oz
 Process Capability
Design
Specifications

(a) Natural variation

exceeds design
specifications; process is
not capable of meeting
specifications all the
time.
Process
Design
Specifications

(b) Design specifications

and natural variation the
same; process is capable
of meeting specifications
most of the time.

Process
 Process Capability
Design
Specifications

(c) Design specifications

greater than natural
variation; process is
capable of always
conforming to
specifications.
Process
Design
Specifications

(d) Specifications greater

than natural variation, but
process off center; capable
but some output will not
meet upper specification.

Process
Process Capability Ratio

tolerance range
Cp =
process range

upper spec limit - lower spec limit

=
6
Process Capability Index, Cpk
Capability
CapabilityIndex
Indexshows
shows
how  X  LTL UTL - X 
howwell
wellparts
partsbeing
being 
C pk = min or 
produced  3 3 
producedfitfitinto
intodesign
design
limit
limitspecifications.
specifications.

As
Asaaproduction
productionprocess
process
produces
producesitems
itemsin in
equipment
equipmentor orsystems
systems
can
cancause
causedifferences
differencesinin
production
production
performance
performancefromfrom
differing
differingsamples.
samples.

Shifts in Process Mean

Computing Cp

Net weight specification = 9.0 oz  0.5 oz

Process mean = 8.80 oz
Process standard deviation = 0.12 oz

upper specification limit -

lower specification limit
Cp = 6

= 9.5 - 8.5 = =1.39

6(0.12)
Computing Cpk

Net weight specification = 9.0 oz  0.5 oz

Process mean = 8.80 oz
Process standard deviation = 0.12 oz

=
x - lower specification limit
,
Cpk = minimum 3
=
upper specification limit - x
3

8.80 - 8.50 9.50 - 8.80

= minimum , = 0.83
3(0.12) 3(0.12)