Propositional

Unit I
Introduction to the Propositional and

Predicate Calculus,
Inference Rules and
use for Predicate Calculus Expression
Propositional Calculus
• Propositional Calculus is the simplest form of logic where all the
statements are made by propositions.
• A proposition is a declarative statement which is either true or false.
• It is a technique of knowledge representation in logical and
mathematical form.
Example
• a) Today is Sunday.
• b) The Sun rises from east
• c) 5 is a prime number.
• d) 3+3= 7(False proposition)
Propositional • Propositional symbols denote propositions, or statements about
the world that may be either true or false, such as "the car is
symbols red" or "water is wet."
Sl. Type Symbol Description
It represents a Negative condition. P is a positive statement, and ¬ P indicates

1 Negation ¬P NOT condition.
Example: Today is Monday (P), Today is not a Monday (¬ P)
It joins two statements P, Q with AND clause.

2 Conjunction P^Q Example: Ram is a cricket player (P). Ram is a Hockey player (Q). Ram plays
both cricket and Hockey is represented by (P ^ Q)
It joins two statements P, Q with OR Clause.

Example: Ram leaves for Mumbai (P) and Ram leaves for Chennai (Q). Ram
3 Disjunction PvQ
leaves for Chennai or Mumbai is represented by (P v Q). In this complex
statement, at any given point of time if P is True Q is not true and vice versa.
Sentence (Q) is dependent on sentence (P), and it is called implication. It

follows the rule of If then clause. If sentence P is true, then sentence Q is true.
4 Implication P→Q The condition is unidirectional.
Example: If it is Sunday (P) then I will go to Movie (Q), and it is represented
as P → Q
Sentence (Q) is dependent on sentence (P), and vice versa and conditions are
bi-directional in this connective. If a conditional statement and its converse are
true, then it is called as bi-conditional connective (Implication condition in both
the directions P → Q and Q → P). If and only if all conditions are true, then the
5 Bi-conditional P ⇔ Q
end statement is true.
Example: If I have 1000 Rupees then only I will go to Bar. The converse
condition that I will go to Bar if and only if I have Rs 1000. The first statement
covers necessity and the second one covers sufficiency.
PROPOSITION
AL CALCULUS
SENTENCES
Basic facts about
propositional logic:
• Propositional logic is also called Boolean logic
as it works on 0 and 1.
• we use symbolic variables to represent the logic,
and we can use any symbol for a representing a
proposition, such A, B, C, P, Q, R, etc.
• Propositions can be either true or false, but it
cannot be both.
• Propositional logic consists of an object,
relations or function, and logical connectives.
• The propositions and connectives are the basic
elements of the propositional logic.
Basics
• Connectives can be said as a logical operator which
connects two sentences.
• A proposition formula which is always true is
called tautology, and it is also called a valid sentence.
• A proposition formula which is always false is
called Contradiction.
• Statements which are questions, commands, or opinions are
not propositions such as "Where is Rohini", "How are
you", "What is your name", are not propositions.
• The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable
sentences for the knowledge representation. There are two
types of Propositions:
1.Atomic Propositions
Syntax of 2.Compound propositions
propositional • Atomic Proposition: Atomic propositions are the simple
propositions. It consists of a single proposition symbol.
logic: These are the sentences which must be either true or false.
• Example:
1.a) 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.
2.b) "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact
.
• Compound proposition: Compound propositions are constructed by
combining simpler or atomic propositions, using parenthesis and
logical connectives.
• Example:
1.a) "It is raining today, and street is wet."
2.b) "Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."
Example
• Negation: A sentence such as ¬ P is called negation of P. A literal can be either Positive literal or negative
literal.
• Conjunction: A sentence which has ∧ connective such as, P ∧ Q is called a conjunction.
• Example: Rohan is intelligent and hardworking. It can be written as,
• P= Rohan is intelligent,
• Q= Rohan is hardworking. → P∧ Q.
• Disjunction: A sentence which has ∨ connective, such as P ∨ Q. is called disjunction, where P and Q are the
propositions.
• Example: "Ritika is a doctor or Engineer",
• Here P= Ritika is Doctor. Q= Ritika is Doctor, so we can write it as P ∨ Q.
• Implication: A sentence such as P → Q, is called an implication. Implications are also known as if-then rules.
It can be represented as
• If it is raining, then the street is wet.
• Let P= It is raining, and Q= Street is wet, so it is represented as P → Q
• Biconditional: A sentence such as P⇔ Q is a Biconditional sentence, example If I am breathing, then I am
alive
• P= I am breathing, Q= I am alive, it can be represented as P ⇔ Q.
Truth Table:
• In propositional logic, we need to know the truth values of

propositions in all possible scenarios.
• We can combine all the possible combination with logical connectives,
and the representation of these combinations in a tabular format is
called Truth table.
• Predicate calculus as a representation language for artificial
intelligence.
P Q Negation
Conjunction Disjunction Implication Bi-conditional
¬P ¬Q P^Q PvQ P→Q P⇔Q
True True False False True True True True
True False False True False True False False
False True True False False True True False
False False True True False False True True

Properties of Operators:
• Commutativity:
• P∧ Q= Q ∧ P, or
• P ∨ Q = Q ∨ P.
• Associativity:
• (P ∧ Q) ∧ R= P ∧ (Q ∧ R),
• (P ∨ Q) ∨ R= P ∨ (Q ∨ R)
• Identity element:
• P ∧ True = P,
• P ∨ True= True.
• Distributive:
• P∧ (Q ∨ R) = (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R).
• P ∨ (Q ∧ R) = (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R).
• DE Morgan's Law:
• ¬ (P ∧ Q) = (¬P) ∨ (¬Q)
• ¬ (P ∨ Q) = (¬ P) ∧ (¬Q).
• Double-negation elimination:
• ¬ (¬P) = P.
Limitations of Propositional logic:
• We cannot represent relations like ALL, some, or none with
propositional logic. Example:
• All the girls are intelligent.
• Some apples are sweet.
• Propositional logic has limited expressive power.
• In propositional logic, we cannot describe statements in terms of their
properties or logical relationships.

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Unit I

Introduction to the Propositional and

It represents a Negative condition. P is a positive statement, and ¬ P indicates

It joins two statements P, Q with AND clause.

It joins two statements P, Q with OR Clause.

Sentence (Q) is dependent on sentence (P), and it is called implication. It

• In propositional logic, we need to know the truth values of

¬P ¬Q P^Q PvQ P→Q P⇔Q

True True False False True True True True

True False False True False True False False

False True True False False True True False

False False True True False False True True

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