Wolkite University

College of Engineering and Technology

Textile Engineering Department

Pretreatment of Textiles

BY: Belayihun Missaw

(MSc in Textile Chemistry)
BASIC OPERATIONS
 It is possible to consider the wet processing sector to have three distinct
types of processes included within it.
1- PREPARATION PROCESS:
• Exists to ensure that the textile has the right physical and chemical
properties to enable it to be colored or finished.
EXAMPLE: Desizing, Singeing, Scouring, Bleaching etc.
2- COLOURATION PROCESSES:
• Exists to provide the textile with color either for aesthetic reasons or for
some functional purpose determined by the end-use of the product.
EXAMPLE: Dyeing, Printing.
3- FINISHING PROCESSES:
• Exists to provide the textile with the properties that the end-use
demands
and which have not already been provided by any earlier processes.
EXAMPLE: Water Repellency, Flame Repellency, Antisoiling finish etc.
What is the Need of Textile Chemical Processing?
 In Textile Chemical Processing the chemical treatments are

given to the fabric after being manufactured.

Impurities present in the fabric such as

 oil stains,  oil and waxes, starches or other sizing

 dust materials, seed particles, and

 dirt natural coloring materials.
 These impurities affect properties like
 absorbency
 softness
 appearance of the fabric (dirty or pale yellow)
 These impurities can be classified as.
 Natural Impurities

presents in the natural fibres in the form of

oil, waxes, natural colour, vegetable matters ( such as
leaves particles, Seed particles, etc), In case of wool sweat
 Added Impurities

manually added to the yarn or fibres during the

manufacturing process to increase the efficiency of the
weaving process such as, Sizing materials, spin finishes
prevention of static charges (lubrication/antistatic treatment).
 The main objectives of preparatory treatments of
textile materials are,
• To remove all the impurities, both naturals and those
added during production that may interfere in
subsequent dyeing or finishing process.

Improve the ability of the fibers to absorb water, dyes solutions

and chemicals.

Impart proper brightness or whiteness to fabrics according to

need, especially when brilliant or pastel shades are desired.

for removing impurities from fibers and for improving their

aesthetic appearance and processability as fabrics prior to
dyeing, printing, and/or mechanical and functional finishing
Preparatory Processes can be carried
out in
 Fibre

 Yarn
 Fabric (most common)
 Garment or other ready made forms

• Generally, The nature and amount of natural impurities present

depends on the fibre type ( generally high in natural fibres).

synthetic fibres do not have any natural impurity.

Flow Chart Of Textile Wet Processing :(Woven Fabric)

Grey Textile Material

Singeing

De sizing

Scouring

Bleaching

Mercerizing

Dyeing Printing

Finishing

Finished Textile Material

 Preparatory Processes Before Pretreatment

Grey Fabric Inspection

• Inspection Definition: Activities such as Measuring,

Examining, Testing, Gauging, one or more characteristics.
• Comparing these with specific requirements to determine
conformity.
• Grey cloth from weaving have many faults ( Broken ends
and picks, stains and etc).
• Also in grey inspection the following points are checked, EPI,
PPI, Width and Length of fabric & GSM.
 Cont..
 Major fabric defects during weaving are :-
– Oil stains: formed accidentally during weaving and
handling
– Holes (Accidental abrasion in contact with sharp
object.
– Thin and Thick places due to yarn defect

– Warp or weft thread breaks (loose thread on

fabric surface)
– Long thread attached to fabric surface
 Fabric faults

Stains Thick place Missing end or pick

Hole
 Mechanical cleaning of fabrics
Cropping and Shearing
Shearing is the process of cutting projecting fibers and
yarns to give smooth and clean appearance by rising knives
and blades.

Objectives:
• To remove the projecting yarns and filaments from the
surface of the fabric
• To give clean and smooth appearance to the fabric.

• To control pill formation.

 Brushing
• Purpose
•To remove short loose threads from fabric surface

Operation
• Fabric moves in contact with Cylinders (2-4) covered with fine
bristles (Brush Roller).
• The loose threads are picked up by the brush rollers.

• Removed by vacuum.

• In this operation only loose threads are removed

• Threads attached to the fabric surface removed by

shearing/cropping operation.
SINGEING
 Singeing
Objectives:

to remove projecting fibers or protruding fibers from the

surface of the fabric so as to give it a smoother, cleaner
appearance.

 Principles
 Burning of protruding fibres by means of gas flame.
 Passage of fabric at high speed (80-150 m/min)
 Contact time with flame: Fraction of seconds
 Fabric is quenched immediately when it comes out of
 Cont…
 Depending on how thermal energy is transferred to
the fabric in singeing two different singeing
systems are used
1. Direct singeing
2. Indirect
Singeing 1. Direct singeing

 direct contact of the heat source and the fabric

 The heat source can be in the form of

 Plate singeing machine

 Rotary-cylinder singeing machine
 Gas singeing machine ( flame)
  Plate singeing machine

 The machine consists of two

heated copper plates of about 1-
2" thick.
 The properly dried cloth passes
over the plates at speeds up to 200
yards per minute, according to
quality.

 A special traversing arrangement for the cloth is

supplied to prevent local cooling of the hot plate.

 The singed cloth is then run through water to extinguish the spark.
  Rotary Cylinder Singeing machine

 The cloth passes over an internally heated hollow cast iron or

copper cylinder which revolves slowly in the opposite direction of
the goods.
 GAS SINGEING
MACHINE
  GAS SINGEING MACHINE

a suitable mixture of gas and air under pressure is used

as the heat source. This mixture is fed into a slot burner
where it undergoes combustion.

the fabric passes over a burning gas flame at such

a speed that only the protruding fibres burn and the
main body of the fabric is not damaged by the
flame.
 This is the most common type of machine used for
singeing fabrics as well yarns.

 The width of the burner can be adjusted to suit

different fabric widths.
  The flame height and heat intensity can be varied for
different fabrics by altering the pressure of the mixture or
the ratio of gas and air in mixture.

 It is important to preheat the cloth to reduce its

moisture content before singeing, as a dry cloth
performs better than a cold fabric.

Immediately after singeing, the cloth quenched in an

aqueous bath to quench any like spark to prevent a
potential fire.
 Conventional gas singeing:

 Movement of fabric over flame (1.5-4mm) away at 50-200 m/min.

 The temperature of the flame is 13000C (Exposure time = 0.1sec)
 The method of singeing is controlled flame.

SINGEING PARAMETERS

 Flame intensity
 Singeing speed
 Distance between the flame and fabric
 Method of singeing 21
 POSITIONS OF BURNER IN GAS SINGEING

TANGENTIAL

Only the protruding

fibres are burned-off.

fabric is exposed to
the flame tangentially

especial for light

weight and heat
sensitive fabrics.

22
 SINGEING onto WATER-COOLED ROLLER
flame strikes the fabric at
right angle while it is passing
over a water cooled roller.
It is suitable for synthetic
and blended textiles and
fabrics with open structure.
The fabric remains relatively cooled
during the singeing process and
temperature sensitive fabrics are thus
protected from heat
The contact of fabric with water cooled roller
ensures
that the temperature of the fabric does not rise
An elastic steam and air cushion is formed inside the fabric
structure which resist any possible penetration of flame into the
 Singeing into the fabric

the flame strikes the free

guided fabric at right angles

Absence of any support means

the flame can penetrate the
fabric and burn off fibres
embedded in fabric structure.

suitable for cellulosic fibres and other heavy

technical fabrics made from fibre blends.
whereby even the interstices( holes opening spaces etc) gets
good singeing
Principle of gas singeing machine
Gas singeing machine
 2. Indirect singeing

 Utilizes infrared radiation for the required thermal

energy.

 The fabric passes heated ceramic bodies with emitted

radiation

Advantages

 No Flame Contact, hence safer approach

 Uniform 
Singeing, as radiation can
be
distributed uniformly around a fabric surface.
 Bio-Singeing/Bio-Polishing

This process removes protruding fibres & slubs

from knitted fabrics

The hydrolysis action of the enzyme weakens

the protruding fibres to the extent that a small
physical abrasion force is sufficient to break
and remove them.

Uses Enzyme - Hydralases (Cellulases)

 INSUFFICIENT SINGEING

 Too low flame intensity

 Too fast singeing speed

 Too far distance between the flame and fabric

 Inappropriate (less severe) singeing position

 Too much moisture in the incoming fabric

 UNEVEN SINGEING

 Non uniform moisture content

 Non uniform flame intensity

 Non uniform distance between the flame and fabric

 Inappropriate (less severe) singeing position

 Uneven smoke evacuation over the burner

 Change in fabric speed during singeing

 OVER SINGEING

 Too high flame intensity

Too slow fabric speed or too long contact between fabric

and flame

Too close contact between fabric and flame [deep penetration o

flame]

 Inappropriate (too severe) singeing position

Over singeing results thermal damage of cotton

Appearance of fabric after singeing
The factors, on which the efficiency of size removal
depends, are as follow

 Type and amount of size applied

 Viscosity of the size in solution
 Ease of dissolution of the size film on the
yarn
 Nature and the amount of the plasticizers
 Fabric construction
 Method of desizing, and
 Method of washing-off
DESIZING
 INTRODUCTION
In the production of fabrics by weaving process the warp yarns are
coated with size material mainly to avoid yarn breakages in the
making up process.

The surface coating of sizes are stiff, hard, smooth and less

absorbant to water.

 The conventional sizing process for cotton warp yarns utilizes

starch with additives mainly humectants, binders and lubricants.
 In the process of desizing, not only sizing agents, but also

some natural impurities are eliminated from fibres.

 The removal of hydrophobic part of the (the

sizes lubricants) is often especially problemetic

 Synthetic yarns are stronger and hence increasing strength

by sizing is not the aim and adhesion of the sizing material

to the yarn is also difficult.

The sizing material on woven fabric forms a
strong film which acts as a barrier for
penetration of chemical solutions in further
processing.
For smooth further chemical processing the
wettability has to be increased by removing
the size material applied in the weaving
process.
The process of size removal is known as
DESIZING.

40
 Sizing Agents
• The purpose of size is to protect the yarn from the abrasive action of
the loom.
• Size composition = sizing materials + additives(lubricants,
humectants and preservatives)
 Sizing materials are film forming polymers.
1. Starch
2. Modified starch – hydroxy ethyl cellulose,
carboxymethlycellulose
(CMC).
3. Synthetic sizes (form a tough to hard film of poor
flexibility).– PVA,
acrylics, polyester resins
5. Solvent soluble sizes (a development for the future).

41
 STARCHES
 Starches are carbohydrates composed of repeating anhydroglucose units
linked together by glycosidic linkage.
 75% of sizing agents today consist of starch or its derivatives because of its
low cost.

 Chemically starch is composed of amylose (20-25%) and amylopectine (75-80%).

Amylose
 low mol. wt., straight chain and water soluble

 Amylopectine.
 branched, high mol. wt. and less water soluble
 MECHANISM OF DESIZING

Desizing involves treatment of the substrate with a solution

of the desizing agent, allowing the desizing agent to

Degrade or Solubilize size material, and finally to wash out

accompanying degradation products

43
 FACTORS AFFECTING SIZE REMOVAL
• Viscosity of size in solution
• Ease of dissolution of size film
• Amount of size applied
• Nature and amount of plasticizers
• Fabric construction
• Washing off conditions
44
 METHODS OF DESIZING
 ACID DESIZING
 ENZYMATIC DESIZING

 OXIDATIVE DESIZING

 ROT STEEPING
 Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages
Starch and polymers that are applied which are water insoluble are
converted in to water soluble compound i.e. to simple sugars or simple
water soluble polymers
 Hydrolysis: Acid, Enzymes (direct breaking of linkage)

 Oxidation: Oxidizing agents (oxidation followed by breaking of

45
 ACID DESIZING
COTTON FABRIC IS TREATED WITH DILUTE MINERAL ACIDS

[HCL OR H2SO4]
Dilute acid attacks the polymer chain of
starch and short water soluble chain segments are
formed
 Reduction in molecular weight of starch

 The degraded starch is removed from the fabric by normal

washing
Important parameters in acid desizing

Optimum concentration, pH and temperature/time

Example: cotton fabric is treated with;

HCl (0.5-1%) (5-10 g/1) at 30-600C for
2-8 h H2SO4 (0.5-1%) (5-10 g/1) at 400C for
3-4h

Good demineralization of

cotton Cellulose may damage 47

Cont…
Advantages
Disadvantage
 Acid desizing is an economical
 Mineral acid is harmful to
process.
cellulose fibres if proper
 The process is effective and care is not taken.
gives fairly uniform desizing, as Especially during the
it is a chemical- based process.
storage stage, the acid-wet
 It does not require specific fabric must not be allowed
conditions of pH and can be done to dry.
at room temperature.  This would cause the
 It is a much quicker process than formation of
rot steep desizing. hydrocellulose, which
 ENZYMATIC DESIZING
Enzymes are biological catalysts that mediate
virtually all of the biochemical reactions without
themselves undergoing any permanent chemical
change,
 Most widely practiced method of desizing
 Use of enzymes for starch removal
Enzymes are biocatalysts with protein structure produced
by living organisms
Enzymes are specific :
REACTION AND SUBSTRATE SPECIFIC
IN DESIZING ENZYMES ARE USED TO CATALYZE
49
HYDROLYSIS OF STARCH INTO SIMPLE SUGARS.
 Degradation of amylose & amylopectin in starch

The effect is breaking of the polymeric chains and

converting into low molecular weight products which are
easily removed from the fabric by normal hot washing.

Amylase Enzyme
Enzymatic desizing is the most effective desizing
method mainly due to specific action on starch

50
51
 MAJOR AMYLASE ENZYMES
Malt Enzymes extracted from plants

Pancreatic Enzymes are extracted from animals

Bacterial Enzymes are prepared from bacteria

Factors Affecting Enzymatic Desizing

🞭 The length of time for digestion will vary with:-
• The concentration of enzyme used,
• The temperature of the desizing bath,
• The types of goods being desized and
• methods of desizing (batch or continuous process.)
Effect of Temp, pH and Electrolytes on Enzymatic Desizing
• Activity of enzymes increase with temperature; however, above a
critical temperature enzymes are deactivated.
• The effectiveness of enzymes exhibit a maximum at certain
temperatures, usually 40 -75 0C.
• Certain salts increase the activity of specific enzymes. Pancreatic
amylase is ineffective without the addition of salt.
• A combination of sodium chloride and calcium chloride increases
the stability of bacterial amylase above 160 0F.
Salts afford heat protection to enzyme and give increased stability and
efficiency.

53
Most thermally stable … can work up to 100 0C under special conditions
• Enzymes are quite specific in their response to pH and require close
control.

• Heavy metal ions such as Cu, Fe, etc may combine with enzyme and
inhibit its activity.
• The enzyme process of desizing is very easy to use and is adaptable
to any type of equipment.

 Major advantage of enzymes – they do not damage cellulose.

54
 Enzymatic Desizing…
Procedure: usually continuous method
1. Saturate the fabric with solution containing:
• Bacterial amylase 2.5-10 gpl
• Common salt (activator) 5 g/l
• Non ionic wetting agent 1.5 g/l
• pH 7
 Wetting agent helps the enzyme to penetrate the size film.

2. Hold
 Open-width Range: Steam 1 to 2 minutes at 200 to 212 0F.
 Rope Range: Store in J Box for 20 to 30 minutes at 170 to 180 0F or
over night at RT.

3. Rinse with water at 175 0F or hotter for complete removal of size.

55
Advantages …
Disadvantages
 Time required for the desizing
process is less.
 It is continuous process, Lower
so greater production can additional cleaning ef
be achieved. fect towards other
impurities.
 Closely constructed
fabric can be easily desized,
due to the effective enzyme  No effect on certain
action. starches (e.g. tapioca
 There is no chance for starch)
the cellulose to get
hydrolysed, as in acid
 OXIDATIVE DESIZING
This method is based on oxidation of starch using
oxidizing agents: Sodium hypochlorite, hydrogen
peroxide and ammonium or potassium
persulphates.

Principle of desizing with oxidizing agents:

 Opening anhydroglucose rings
 Conversion into carboxylic acid
groups
Starch granules are oxidized with OXIDIZING AGENTS
which converts the 2-3 hydroxyl into -COOH groups
breaking the ring at that point.

Best suitable for mixed & unknown sizes 58

 Cont…
• The main limitations of oxidative desizing agents are:

 increased pollution load,

fibre damage

inability to recover and re-use water soluble

sizes.
 require precise control on process
parameters.
 ROT STEEPING
TRADITIONAL DESIZING

STEPPING IN WATER AT ROOM TEMPERATURE

 Micro-organisms develop excreting enzymes which attack

the starch. The starch swells and hydrolysis takes place.

 Soluble compounds which are then removed from

the fabric by normal washing with water.

 Low efficiency (longer treatment time) and cellulose

degradation due to cross-infections of mildew.

60
ROT STEEPING

Step 1: Wetting and Step 2: Steeping of Step 3: Washing in a rope

squeezing in a 3- bowl wet fabric in a storage washing machine
padding mangle
tank

Advantages Disadvantag
 cheapest of all the 
es large floor space is required for
this process.
desizing methods.  The process is slow, so desizing time
 No chemicals is long.
are required.  Mildew may attack the cloth during
steeping and cause stains on the
fabric.
 Other Size Materials and Desizing
 For the removal of water-soluble sizes such
as PVA, theoretically, only washing with hot
water is needed for desizing.
Comparison of Desizing Methods

Method Chemical Temp. Time pH

(%) (0C)
Rot None 30 (RT) 16-24 h 7
Acid 0.5-1 30-60 2-8 h 1-2
Enzyme 0.5-1 70-80 1-2 h 6-7
Oxidative 0.3-0.5 100 10 min 14
62
 3.2 Desizing of Synthetics and Their Blends
• Desizing of synthetics and their blends depends on the nature of the
size that must be removed.
Rayon – desizing is difficult as rayon swells in water to a great
extent……poor penetration of enzyme.
Nylon - The most common sizing agent used is PVA.
 Low mol wt PVA – soluble in water
No desizing…..Light scouring with non-ionic surfactant (3-5 g/l)
 High mol wt PVA (>100,000) – difficult to remove from fabric
- Results in uneven desizing
Polyester sizing agents are not removed by simple washing. Need an
ionic or non-ionic surfactant.
 2-3 g/l non-ionic surfactant
 1-2 g/l NaOH (Na2CO3) at 80- 95 0C for 20-30 min
 Soft water is used as metal ions interfere with size removal.
63
 Desizing Synthetics…

• Polyacrylic sizes – soluble in mildly acidic or alkaline

solutions

Polyester/cotton blends – depend on nature of size

 PVA and CMC – by hot water wash

 Mixtures of starch and emulsifying wax – enzymatic

desizing followed by alkali scour
 PVA is difficult to remove from blended fabrics which have
been heat treated above 135 0C... desizing using neutral H2O2.
64
 3.3 Desizing Machineries
• The desizing processes are very much dictated by
economics in terms of the chemical or enzyme consumption,
the equipment available and the end use requirements.

• With the introduction of J-box and other continuous preparing

methods and equipments, desizing is gradually loosing its identity
as a separate process.
Singeing/desizing Time and energy saving
Desizing/scouring
 Oxidizing agents added while scouring to promote desizing
• Pretreatment machineries:
 Batch machines
 Semi continuous
 Continuous
65
 1. Batch Machines
i. Jigger – for small lots up to 1000 m
• Handles fabric in open width.
• The cycle can be repeated as many times as it takes to achieve the
desired effect.

Modern jigger:
 Batching up facilities
 Automatic selvedge shifting
 Automatic tension regulation
 Gentle handling of delicate fabrics

Universal Jigger
MLR = material to liquor ratio

66
 1. Batch Machines…
ii. Winch – in rope form
• For delicate fabrics (knitted fabrics)
• High MLR
• Enzymatic desizing can be carried out at 60-70 0C for 30 min.
• The fabric capacity of the machine is about 350 kg.

• The modem rope washing machines can be used for processing with
any kind of fabric with reduced water consumption, chemicals and
electrical energy.
67
 2. Semi-continuous Machines

i. Pad-batch
 After Impregnation with solution contining desizing agent,
wetting agent and salt
 The fabric in open width form is batched and covered
with
polythene sheet to prevent fabric being dried unevenly
 Long
because
digestion
the material
time inisthe
unheated.
range of 6-16 hr are given 68
 3. Continuous Machines
• To process large volumes of a relatively few styles of fabrics.
• The fabric moves continuously (at relative high rates of speed)
through stages and compartments which provide the chemicals,
time, temperature and rinsing needed for cleaning the fabric.
Three substations:
i. Padder - where the fabric is impregnated with chemicals
ii. Steamer - which provides reaction time and temp.
iii. Washing station for flushing out the impurities.
• The equipment is designed for handling the fabric as a
continuous
rope or as an open width sheet.
• An open width range needs more sophisticated equipment such
edge guide rollers, fabric spreaders and steam chambers to keep
the fabric flat and smooth.
69
 3. Continuous Machines…
i. Continuous Rope Range
• Each stage contains a saturator, J-box and rope washers.

At 60-90 0C for
15-20 min

J-box - the heart of a rope range

The saturated fabric is plaited into the
top leg of the J and feeds by gravity
out through the lower leg.
The size of the J-box depends on the
dwell time and the speed of the
and steam
range. Theseheated.
boxes are usually 70
 3. Continuous Machines…
ii. Continuous Open Width Range
• Pad the fabric for 20-60 sec at 95-100 0C using saturated steam.
• The bottom of the steaming chamber is provided with steam
radiating pipes to obtain the necessary conditions of temperature
and humidity.
• Alkaline peroxide is greatly used in continuous pad-steam
processes
in which desizing, scouring and bleaching can be combined.
• When enzymes are applied to starch the enzyme sensitivity to heat
is remarkably improved if the enzyme can be applied first and then
steamed.
• After
washerdesizing is completed
to remove the shortthe fabric
chain is washed in an open width
sugars. 71
 3. Continuous Machines…

Singer, Saturator, Padder steamer and enclosed Washer

72
 TEST FOR DESIZING EFFICIENCY
• A drop of iodine solution placed on a test
specimen resulting in a characteristic blue color is
the universal test for identifying starch.

• It can be used as a qualitative test to show

whether
all the starch was removed.

• Absence of the blue color signifies that all the

starch has been removed.
 Other tests include calculation of the weight loss,
capillary measurement and drop test. 73
Drop Test
A drop of water is placed on fabric and the time it takes
for

the drop to penetrate fabric is recorded. The wettability

is determined by counting the elapsed seconds between

the contact of the water drop with the fabric

and disappearance of the drop into the fabric. The

74
faster the
THANK
YOU!!!
SCOURING
 Introduction
• Natural fibers contain oils, fats, waxes, minerals,
leafy matter and motes as impurities that interfere
with dyeing and finishing.
• Synthetic fibers contain producer spin finishes,
coning oils and/or knitting oils.
• Mill grease used to lubricate processing equipment
mill dirt, temporary fabric markings and the like
may contaminate fabrics.
• The process of removing these impurities is called
Scouring.
 COTTON FIBER IMPURITIES
• Cotton fiber is composed of 4-12% impurities
Average (% on dry basis)
Cellulose 88 - 96
Protein matter 1.1 – 1.9
Pectin 0.7 – 1.5
Fats & wax 0.4 – 1.0
Mineral matter {Ash} 0.7 – 1.6
Others * 0.5 – 8.0

Others : Pigments, sugars, organic acids

etc
Impurities in cotton vary according to:
- Maturity
- Geography
- Soil constitution
- Cultivation technique
Cotton impurities are largely located on the outer surface
of the fiber
Impurities are not water soluble and can be removed by:
i. Extraction – dissolving by organic solvents (Solvent
Scor)
ii. Emulsification –stable suspension of impurities
(Emulsion)
iii. Saponification – converting to water soluble (Aqueous
scouring)
79
 Purpose of Scouring
 remove natural impurities : fats and waxes
 pectic substances: proteins,minerals
 remove added impurity : oil stains
 seed coat fragments (kittys)
improve water absorbency for uniform
dyeing, printing and finishing.

The objective of scouring is to reduce the amount of

impurities sufficiently to obtain level and reproducible
results in dyeing and finishing operations.
Scouring agents can be generally classified into different
groups
i. Alkali agents: NaOH, KOH, Na2CO3, liquid ammonia
ii. Surfactants: anionic and non-ionic activators
iii. Emulsion scouring
iv. Solvent scouring: Chlorine system (CCl4,
trichloroethylene), hydrocarbon system (benzene,
white spirit, …)
The classical scouring method is aqueous alkaline
scouring using caustic soda (NaOH) as alkali
The appropriate type of scouring agent depends on:
- Kind of fiber
- Extent of impurities present
- The shade % and type of shade of finished product.
81
Generally, Stain removers commonly are solvents, surfactants, and
enzymes. And employs one or more of the following techniques:
 Dissolve the Stain
 Stain removers contain solvents. A solvent is any fluid that dissolves
another chemical.
 “like dissolves like" …use a solvent that is chemically similar to your
stain.
 water-based stain…use a water-based solvent, like soapy water.
 oily stain.. Stain removers often contain alcohol.
 Emulsify the Stain
 stain removers contain emulsifiers or surfactants.
 Emulsifiers coat the stain ……. help to lift it off of the surface.
 Surfactants increase the wettability of materials,…. making it easier
for the stain remover to contact and remove the stain.

82
 Digest the Stain
 Stain removers often employ enzymes or other
proteins…. to break apart stain molecules.
 Enzymes digest proteins and fats in stains
 breaking the chemical bonds in the stain molecules….. Stains
may be broken apart
 Hide the Stain
 Many stain removers contain whiteners.
 These chemicals may not contribute any cleaning power, yet
they may render the stain invisible or draw the eye away from it.

The best stain remover is one that removes your stain

without damaging the stained fabric or surface.
Always test a stain remover on a small or inconspicuous spot to
make sure the chemical won't produce any undesirable effects.
Mechanism of removal of impurities
Action of alkali scouring:
• To saponify any residual oils
• To neutralize carboxylic acids
• To solubilize any sizing material
• To cause dispersion of impurities
CHEMISTRY OF OILS, FATS AND WAXES
 Chemically, fats and waxes are esters of fatty acids
• Fats are triesters of glycerine and waxes are monoesters of fatty
alcohols.
• Fats, also known as triglycerides, are abundantly produced by nature
as vegetable oils ( corn, olive, coconut, linseed, castor and soy bean
oil) fatty deposits in animals (beef, mutton, pork and fish)
Saponification rxn

+ 3RCOONa
3NaOH + Glycerine
Soap 84
Triglyceride
 …Mechanism of Scouring…
 Saponification;

FATTY ACID

(SODIUM STEARATE)

sodium salt of fatty acid Water soluble

FATS CAN BE EASILY SAPONIFIED BY NaOH INTO SOAP AND GLYCEROL
85
Cont…
 the vegetable oil which is immiscible with water, is
glyceride of fatty acids.
 When such oils are heated with a solution of
sodium hydroxide in water, the oil splits up into its
constituents- fatty acid and glycerine.
 Glycerine is miscible with water easily and
 the fatty acids reacts with sodium hydroxide
present in the solution forming its sodium salt i.e.
soap which is also soluble in water. Thus oil is
removed.
86
Pectins and related substances - Present in the cotton
fiber cuticle, it is a powerful biological glue…..Solibilized
by the action of alkali (NaOH)
🞭The proteins and nitrogeneous materials are hydrolysed
by alkali into soluble amino acids or ammonia.

PECTIC ACID (water insoluble)

CONVERTED TO WATER SOLUBLE Na SALT OF PECTIC ACID

87
Water soluble salts of pectic
  Emulsification
 wax and non saponifiable oils are removed by
emulsification as they are immiscible in water.
 Normal washing soap is used as an emulsifying agent
which makes emulsion of them.
 keep the degraded impurities in suspended form to
prevent their deposition on fibre and easy removal during
subsequent washing
 Emulsified solvents (Carbon tetrachloride trichloroethylene
etc ) are used in the formulation of stain removers.
 The solvent capable of dissolving hydrocarbon impurity
and the detergent capable of emulsifying both the
hydrocarbon and the solvent.

88
Stabilised with emulsifiers
Surfactant as emulsifiers
 The change occurring during scouring

 saponifiable oils and free fatty acids are

converted
into soaps.
 Pectins and pectoses are converted into soluble salts of
pectic acid.
 Proteins are degraded to simple soluble amino acids or
ammonia.
 Mineral maters are mostly dissolved
Non- saponifiable oils are emulsified by the soluble
soaps generated from the saponifiable oils.
 Additive dirts are removed.
 Residual sizing materials are broken down into
products. 91
 SCOURING BATH ADDITIVES
• In alkaline scouring different auxiliary chemicals
are added in the scouring bath.
• Tofacilitate the scouring process and for
improved efficiency

 For wettability SURFACTANTS

 For detergency
 For emulsification

 To counteract on hardnessSoEQf
 Surfactants
 Surfactants are surface active agents…it accumulate on the
surface or interface
 usually organic compounds that are amphiphilic … contain
both hydrophobic groups (their "tails") and hydrophilic
groups (their "heads"). Therefore, they are soluble in both
organic solvents and water.
 Two ends attached by a covalent bond have diametrically
opposed polarities:
 Non Polar end: Lyophillic (strongly attracted to organic
molecules)
 Polar end: Lyophobic yet strongly hydrophillic.
 Eg. Surface tension of water – 72 dynes/cm……. 30
dynes/cm with 0.1% surfactant
 the dyne is defined as "the force required to accelerate a
mass of
93
one gram at a rate of one centimetre per second squared":
 SURFACTANTS
Detergents, wetting agents and emulsifiers are
based on surfactants (surface active compounds).

NON POLAR END POLAR END

Surface active compounds have ability to

alter the surface tension between two or more
94
 Surfactant as wetting agent
to reduce the surface tension and thereby bring about
wetting of the surface.
The ability of a liquid to spread on a smooth solid surface is
dependent on the polar nature of the solid and the surface
tension of the liquid
 When a surfactant (soap) is dissolved in water the
hydrocarbon chain (hydrophobic part tail,) tries to get away
from the water and concentrate at the surface.
 The hydrophilic grouping (carboxyl head, O) just dip in the
water at the surface.

hydrophobic

hydrophilic
Water molecules
 Surfactant as detergent
Function of detergents – to remove dirt and dust particles
Dirt adhere on the fabric b/c the oil acts as an adhesive to it
Besides reducing water's surface tension, detergents must
adsorb onto the soil's surface to aid in spontaneous release by
reducing the oils surface tension. They must also keep the soil
suspended to prevent re- deposition.
Detergency Action
1. Lowering of surface tension of water.
2. Wetting of a continuous solid surface by water.
3. Penetration of water into the porous solid.
4. Dispersion and emulsification of oils and fatty materials.
5. Detergency action or detachment and removal of fatty
matter
from its adhesion to fiber. 96
 Surfactant as detergent

hydrophobe orient along the fibre surface.

The fabric/soil/water interfaces not soluble in
water hydrophile, edges tend to associate with
water
A. Fabrlc-soil interface.
B. Orientation begins.

removal of soil from the fabric starts oil disperses as droplets

C. edge effect D. RemovaI of soiI.
B. Ionic Charge
According to the nature of hydrophilic group
i. Anionic: Those that develop a negative charge on
the
water solubilizing end.
Eg. soaps, Sulfonates, Sulfates and Phosphate Esters
Soaps - Sodium oleate
ii.Cationic: Those that develop a positive charge on the
water solubilizing end.
 mainly used as softeners, levelling agents, retardants in
dyeing, water repellents
iii.Non-Ionic: Those that develop no ionic charge on the
water solubilizing end.
iv. Amphoteric: Those that have both a positive and
negative
charged group on the molecule.
ionics 98
Advantages of anionic surfactants:
 Excellent wetting agents/detergents
 Good emulsifiers and dispersants
 Not expensive
 Generate high level of foam

Non-ionic surfactants:
 Washing/dispersing agents
 Leveling agents
 Compatibility with other types of surfactants and
chemicals
Lower C-number, < C14 - mostly
99
 Sequestering or chelating agents
are negatively charged and are capable of forming strong ring
structures with metal ions present in hard water and in pectins of
cotton.
The positively charged metal ions, (Fe 3+ and Ca 2+) are react with
any negatively charged anion (OH- or CO3-2)and form insolubilise
soap in the fibre which may disturb subsequent operation.
Sequestering agents
Some commercially available
sequestering agents:
EDTA – ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid
DTPA – diethylene triamine penta acetic acid
NTA – nitrilotriacetic acid

Ethylenediamine tetraacetic Acid (EDTA)

 CHEMICALS USED IN SCOURING PROCESS

• Solvent: Assist emulsification by dissolving oily materials.

• Builder (Salt): Cause detergents to become increasingly effective.
AQUEOUS ALKALINE SCORING: CONTROLLING PARAMETERS

 Concentration of alkali

 Temperature/time

 Type and amount of additives

 Machine type [Material liquor ratio, MLR]

102
 4.3 Scouring of Cotton
Scouring follows desizing and wet fabric proceed to scouring range
without drying in between.
Objectives of scouring:
• Mote (cellulose of low crystallinity) removal ….. Major
(Motes are swollen in alkali to form sodium cellulosates
…water soluble).
• Remove minerals, waxes and Pectins
• To improve absorbency

3 components in cotton scouring:

1. Caustic – to swell and dissolve motes and to saponify oils and
waxes
2. Surfactant – to lower the bath’s surface tension so it can wet out
the fabric faster and to emulsify oils and waxes
3. Chelating agent -
103
 Alkali Scouring of Cotton
a. Batch Scouring Procedure
1. Run fabric in a bath
containing :

2. Process fabric at 100 0C in beck or jet for one hr.

3. Rinse thoroughly.
b. Continuous Scouring Procedure
1. Saturate fabric with:

2. Steam fabric at 100 0C in J-box or

steamer.
104
3. Rinse thoroughly at 70 0C.
 Different methods of Alkali Scouring
1. The lime-soda boil
Boil with lime (CaOH)2 + boil with Na2CO3
 Tedious and not economical as it requires two boiling
2. The (NaOH) caustic soda boil – most widely used
Keir – boil with 10-20 g/l (3-6% owf) NaOH with MLR= 1:3
Pad – 30 g/l NaOH …. 100% pick up
 To decrease time of treatment, increase conc of alkali
Batch – 4-6% NaOH
 To increase efficiency of scouring…. increase pressure of
scouring
 Loose cotton for bandage and sanitary cotton, where
absorbancy is the prime importance,….. the temperature
(pressure) of boiling increases.
 Rate of saponification of waxes increase with temp (pressure)
but…
 With increase in temp, oxycellulose formation is also
increased
in the absence of air.
105
 Cotton is not degraded by boiling with NaOH soln. up
3. The soda ash boil
 Kind of alkali for cotton scouring depends on quality of good
 If colored yarn in fabric…. Na2CO3 is ideal b/c of its low pH
 Cotton yarn to be dyed in dark – 1-2% Na2CO3 for 30 min in presence of
wetting agent
4. Mixtures of caustic soda and soda ash boil
2NaOH : 1Na2CO3 – often used in single stage
Na2CO3:
• Soften water…while interacting with Ca
and Mg salts (if present) ;
 Creates active reactive medium….. for the formation of stable
emulsions and suspensions
 Increase fiber swelling… thus contributing for the release of
impurities from fiber
 Neutralizes fatty acids contained in the fabric…. by soap formation
5. The soap/detergent-soda ash boil
 This combination is milder than caustic soda ….ideally suitable for
delicate
effect is obtained
clothes and color woven goods 106
 Slower action of milder alkali is compensated by detergent… synergistic
 After scouring, washing is carried out by hot rinsing….
gradually decreasing the temp….avoid breakdown of the
emulsion and precipitation of the impurities on to the cotton.
 Washing completed by treating the fabric in acidic solution
to
neutralize any alkali retained by the fabric
Other additives
1. Sequestering agent
2. Builders – to keir boiling to increase activity of soap and
detergents
Salts of borates, silicates, phosphates, NaCl…
3. Fiber protecting reducing agents – NaHSO3
• NaOH solution during kier boiling of cotton at high
temperature
agents to prevent oxycellulose formation.
107
can form oxycellulose in presence of oxygen….Mild
4. Mild oxidizing agents
• If fabric contains vat or azoic dyed yarn… When
such fabrics are scoured in a pressure kier under
alkaline condition, there is always a risk of staining
the adjacent white ground by bleeding of dyes from
the coloured thread... while the vat dyes may be
reduced to its soluble leuco state in presence of
alkali.. For such types of fabrics mild oxidising
agents like Ludigol, Resist Salt L etc. may be added
to the scouring bath to resist the reducing
properties of dyes.
5. Water insoluble solvents – to accelerate scouring
Solvents – to dissolve more insoluble fats and waxes
Scouring of wool fabric
 IMPURITIES IN RAW WOOL
 Rawwool is dirty & consists of
impurities
Keratin 33%

Dirt 26%

Suint 12%
Impurities
Wax/lipids 28%

Mineral Matter 1%

Others: - Ad d e d lubricants and pigments

110
110
• Dirt: Consists of dried grass, seed, dried oil and so on
held by means of adhesion forces of suint and wool fat.

• Suint: This impurity comes from the secretions by sweat glands.

Typically contains potassium salts of fatty acids and amino acids.

• Wax or wool grease: Mainly lanolin [Complex mixture of hydrocarbons]

• Mineral matter: Oxides of certain metals (potassium & iron)

LARGE AMOUNT OF IMPURITIES

WOOL IS RAPIDLY DEGRADED BY ALKALI.

 METHODS OF WOOL SCOURING
 AQUEOUS ALKALINE SCOURING

 SOLVENT SCOURING

 Thermal sccouring

 FREEZE SCOURING

Scouring must be carried out so as to cause as little harm to the wool

fiber as
possible, both from chemical and mechanical (felting) point of view.
112
AQUEOUS ALKALINE SCOURING
 Alkaline scouring of wool is carried out in alkaline
soap solution.

 Sodium carbonate is used as alkali in wool

scouring.

 Wetting agents & other scouring bath additives

Emulsification and solubilization

113
 AQUEOUS SCOURING PROCESS IN STAGES

Trough Soap Na2CO3 Time Temp

No. (%) (%) (min) (0C)

1 0.8 0.2 2 .5-3 40-50

2 0.4 - 2-3 40-50

3 0.35 - 2 40-50

4 Water - 1-2 40-50

Wool scouring can be carried out on: Fiber, yarn or Fabric

114
 SOLVENT SCOURING
• High pressure jets of solvent remove the wax, dirt and
suint
• Solvents such as benzene and CCl4 (carbon tetrachloride)
• Suitable solvent recovery plant is necessary
Thermal Scouring
1. Thermal liquefaction of wool wax
(50-60 0C using irradiation with microwave energy)

2. Mixing with a grease absorbing particulate material

Eg. talc powder, silicon dioxide etc.

3. Rinse with solvent like water

FREEZE SCOURING
 Exposing wool to low temperature environment [-30oC]
Freezing of wax and dirt matter………becomes hard and brittle.
 Mechanical breakage of frozen matter
 Rinsing
 CARBONIZATION OF WOOL
 The scouring process for wool is primarily engaged in removal of
wax and water soluble impurities.
Vegetable matters in wool are removed by CARBONIZATION

Carbonizing is done to remove the cellulosic

impurities from wool by treatment with acid or
acid producing salts. Primarily sulfuric acid is
used.

The ultimate effect is hydrolysis of cellulose

present in vegetable matters of wool fiber.
CONVENTIONAL CARBONIZING PROCESS
 SCOURING

 ACIDIZING
DRYING …The treated wool substance is dried at low temperature (60-70)
BAKING…dried wool is then heated at 110~ for a short time.

 BURR CRUSHING AND DEDUSTING

 NEUTRALIZING

Carbonizing liquor: H2SO4 (up to 7%) + Acid resistant wetting agent

Drying @ 110 0C and baking @ 140 0C for a short period of time

SCOURING OF
SILK
Silk fiber is composed of two proteins:
INTRODUCTION
fibroin and sericin
The basic fiber substance is Fibroin made
from long-chain protein molecules.

Sericin [silk gum] surrounds the fibroin

filaments and holds them together.
Fibroin and sericin are composed of amino acids
with different composition and structural
arrangements. In particular the serine content of
sericin is higher.

R
- R = -HOCH2
NHCHC
 TYPICAL SILK FIBER COMPOSITION

Component %

Fibroin 70-80
Sericin 20-30
Waxy matter 0.4-0.8
Carbohydrates 1.2-1.6 Impuritie
Inorganic matter 0.7 s
Pigment 0.2

Natural color of silk differs upon type of silkworm and its feeding
habit
 DEGUMMING
• Silk gum together with other impurities inhibit penetration
of chemicals used in subsequent silk processing.

• Scouring of silk practically means removal of the silk gum

and other impurities such as waxy and mineral matter.

DEGUMMING

Cleavage of peptide bonds in sericin by

hydrolysis OR impurity solubilization.
 CONVENTIONAL DEGUMMING
METHODS
Extraction with water …silk can be degummed by extraction with
water at 120~ for about 2 h and repeating the process three to four
times. In this case degradation of silk is minimum, but use of pressure
equipment is essential.
Boil off in soap…boiling-off in soap baths which should be
slightly alkaline.
Degumming with acids
Degumming with alkalis

Acid degumming is due to hydrolysis of sericin.

Alkali degumming involves solubilization of sericin
by converting –COOH groups to –COONa.
121
Chemical Conc. Temp. [oC] Time
Soap 20-30% owf 90-100 1-2h
pH-10

Acid 0.05 mol/l 100 60 min

NI surfactant 3g/l
pH-1.5-2
Water 115 45 min

Alkali
Sod. Carb. 1:1 molar ratio 95 20min
Sod. Bicarb. pH 9.5-10.5
PRETREATMENT OF SYNTHETICS AND BLENDS
Synthetic fibers generally do not contain naturally
occurring impurities like natural fibers.

SPIN FINISHES
PROCESSING LUBRICANTS
DIRT & SIGHTING COLORS
WATER SOLUBLE SIZE

The objective of scouring synthetic fiber fabrics is to

remove the dirt, spin finishes and processing lubricants.
Bleaching for removal of sighting colors.
Scouring for PC blends is mainly designed to remove the natural oils
and waxes from the cotton portion and the finish oils which
manufacturer add to polyester fibers when extruded.
 DETERMINATION OF SCOURING EFFICIENCY
OR
QUALITY CONTORL TESTS

WATER ABSORBENCY TEST

1 TIME REQUIRED FOR WATER DROP ABSORPTION

(STANDARD : WITHIN 3 SECONDS

2SINKING TIME 2.5X2.5 Cm SQUARE

PIECE STANDARD : 5-10 SECONDS

3 CAPILLARY RISE IN A FIXED TIME

HIGHER THE CAPILLARY RISE BETTER
WETTING
Determination of Weight Loss:
 Standard weight loss is 4 – 8%
 If weight loss is less than 4%, it can be said that scouring was
not well
 If weight loss is above 8% then it can be said that fabric
damage has occurred.
 TEXTILE
• MaterialsBLEAC
are contaminated
HING with coloring
matter
• Its original state is colored yellowish-
brown
• The objective of bleaching textiles is to acquire
aesthetic appearance by manufacturing white
textiles
These bleached textiles are obtained by:
combined effect of bleaching agents
and bleaching machineries.
 By break down of the impurities.
By physical combination by using fluorescence
materials.
In generals:
 Almost all textile fiber impurities except
coloring matters are removed by scouring
pre-treatment chemical process.

 Discoloration of textile materials is removed

by one of pre-treatment chemical processes
called textile bleaching

 Designed to remove coloring matter and

Removes also scouring residuals
 VARIOUS REAS ONS WHIC H
C AUS E
DIS CO LORATIONS
• Climate, soil, drought and frost related to
cultivation area of natural fibers,
• Dirt, dust or insects during cultivation and
manufacturing of textile goods,
• Tips of leaves or stains in contact with seed
balls (cotton),
• Harvesting or processing equipments in the
form of oils and greases, etc.
  To decolorize the natural coloring matter in
the cotton using bleaching agents

 To facilitate the textile material( yarn/fabric ) ready

for dyeing and printing

 A bleach is a chemical that removes colors or whitens,

often via oxidation or reduction
 Bleaching Requirements

An efficient bleaching must ensure,

 Pure and permanent white
 Level dyeing properties (avoiding over
or under bleaching which affects the dye
absorption characteristics of the
fabric)
 Fabric does not undergo tendering ( chemical
damage or degradation, results in loss in
Textile bleaching agents are broadly classified
into two classes: -

C H E M I C A L B L E A C H I N G
AGENTS
P H Y S I C A L B L E A C H I N G
AGENTS
 C HEMICAL BLEAC HING
AGENTS
• are oxidizing and reducing agents, which
break down the coloring matter and scouring
residuals through oxidation and reduction
chemical reactions respectively
CHEMICAL BLEACHING AGENTS
1.OXIDATIVE BLEACHING mechanisims

 These are oxidizing agents that attack the colored

impurities and scouring residuals by oxidizing them
resulting disintegration in to simpler or soluble form.
 Mostly used oxidizing agents for oxidative bleaching
process are: -

 Hydrogen peroxide [H2O2]

 Sodium hypochlorite [NaOCl]
 Sodium Chlorite [NaClO2]
 Oxidative bleaches oxidize color bodies into
colorless compounds.

The color producing agents in natural fibers are

often organic compounds containing conjugated
double bonds.
destroying one or more of the double bonds
the conjugated system.
within
Decolouration
Colour – Colourless
 B. Peroxide Bleaching Using Hydrogen
Peroxide [H 2 O 2 ]
• Hydrogen peroxide [H 2 O 2 ] is the most widely used
oxidizing agent in textile bleaching process.
• Chemically hydrogen peroxide is a weak acid
• The bleaching mechanism of hydrogen
peroxide bleaching agent is based on
yielding per hydroxyl ion [HO 2 -]
its decomposition
• which is responsible for liberation oxygen for
of textile bleaching reaction.
• This decomposition reaction takes place in
alkaline media
• the oxygen liberated from per hydroxyl ion destroys the
coloring matters in textile materials through oxidation
reaction.
• The chemical reactions:
…….in aqueous alkaline media

……..in the presence of oxidizable matter

(coloured impurities in cotton)
X + O* X-O (Oxidized coloring matter)
The active bleaching specie is obtained from ionization
of hydrogen peroxide.
PERHYDROXYL ION [HOO-]

 highly unstable and in the presence of oxidisable substance

(coloured impurities in cotton), it is decomposed and thus
bleaching action takes place.
 presence of transition metals leads H2O2 to undergo
homolytic fission to two hydroxyl radicals (OH•).

 Rate of decomposition may be so high that

cellulose is attacked and oxycellulose formed
poor mechanical properties
Stabilized by sequestering agents used

Peroxide decomposition is Catalyzed by metal impurities

M+2 + H2O2 M+3 + -OH + .OH

.OH +H2O2 . OOH +H2O
.OOH+ M+3 M+2 + O2 + H+
Factors Affecting Peroxide Bleaching

 EFFECT OF BLEACH BATH PH

 EFFECT OF STABILIZERS

 BLEACHING TEMPERATURE

 CONCENTRATION OF PEROXIDE
SOLUTION
 BLEACHING TIME
Effect of pH : The stability of hydrogen peroxide depends on pH
 Perhydroxyl ion is desired bleaching species, adding
caustic soda neutralizes proton and shifts the reaction to the
right.

PH ACTIVE SPECIES EFFECT

10 Hydrogen peroxide No bleaching

10.2 – 10.7 Perhydroxyl ion Optimum bleaching

> 11 Perhyroxyl ion & oxygen gas Out of control

 At neutral or weak alkaline media, hydrogen peroxide

does not produce any whitening effect and may cause
degradation of cellulose.
Effect of stabilizers:
 To control the rate of decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide in the bleach bath(rapid decomposition
causes for fibre degradation) stabilizers are

added.

 Provide buffering action to control the pH /alkalinity

 Complex with trace metals which catalyze
decomposition
peroxide
Stabilizers include sodium silicate, organic
compounds and phosphates. 144
Organic stabilizers:
Operate as sequesterants to complex with polyvalent
metal ions which catalyze peroxide decomposition
and disturb bleach bath stability.

Example: Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic Acid [ EDTA]

deposition of silicates on goods… produces a harsh feel on goods…

rinsing of goods in removal of harshness on the fabric. 145
 Effect Of Temperature On
Peroxide Bleaching Process
• The rate of peroxide bleaching is directly proportional
to the bleaching temperature
• bleaching temperature decreases….reduction in the
rate of bleaching reaction
• as bleaching temperature increases bath stability
will
decrease
• there will be tendency of degradation of the textile
material
 Effect Of Concentration Of Peroxide
Solution On Peroxide Bleaching
• is determined by the amount of hydrogen
peroxide and peroxide bleach bath additives used
• the fiber class, temperature and MLR of
bleaching machineries influence the optimum
concentration of peroxide
• beyond the optimum…chemicaldegradation or
damage of textile fibers….. influence the
strength
• lower than the optimum ….insufficient
bleaching and hence poor quality bleached
textiles.
 Effect Of Time On Peroxide Bleaching Process
• Materials which are very sensitive to peroxide solution
and whose strength decreases in alkaline peroxide
solution the time of bleaching is shortened as compared
with high strength textile materials.
– Short time bleaching @ elevated temperature
– Prolonged bleaching @ lower temperature

– longer liquor ratio bleaching requires greater

bleaching time than using short liquor ratio machineries
 HYPOCHLORITE BLEACHING [NaOCl]
• Reactions in bleaching solutions with NaOCl

• Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is active bleaching specie.

Factors that affect hypochlorite bleaching:
 Bleach bath pH; lower Ph-degradation of cellulose
 Temperature; High temperature degrades the cellulose fiber
 time; Shorter time affects on the bleaching action
while longer time may degrade the fiber.
 Concentration (available chlorine):dependon the degree
of discolouration
 Their use is declining because of anti-chlorine and environmental
pressures…treatment NaHSO3 remove odour
 chlorite bleaching process Peroxide bleaching process
 universal bleaching agent
 insensitive to the  Less Degrading effect on
presence of metal ions cellulose
 give permanent white  capable of continuing scouring
simultaneously with bleaching
 Dis advantage actions,
 Sodium chlorite is more  products are only water and
expensive than hydrogen oxygen
peroxide  good and permanent whitening
effect
 Chlorine dioxide is a very toxic
 no unpleasant odours
gas because it can decompose
into both hydrochloric acid and Dis advantage
 requires stabilisation
chlorine gases.  costlier than
 PROBLEM WITH OXIDATIVE BLEACHING

FORMATION OF OXYCELLULOSE RESULTING FIBER

 2. REDUCTIVE BLEACHING
• The reduction reaction reduces the impurities to
their soluble or simpler form easing their
removal by washing treatment
• The reduction reaction is performed by using
reducing agents/sodium hydrosulphite/ NaHSO3
• reductive bleaching method has lower application
• the reason for the limited application is due to
color reversion in textiles.
 PHYSICAL BLEACHING
• After chemical bleaching textiles do not appear perfectly white.

• Trial to increase degree of whiteness by chemical

bleaching can result over-bleaching…fiber
degradation.

• Certain organic compounds in their presence in textiles increase brightness of textiles

without
chemical degradation of impurities.

• Compensating the yellow coloration of the textile materials;

increasing the total amount of light reflected from the

textile surface.
 BRIGHTENING
MECHANISM
 Absorption of light in shorter wave lengths (300 -
400nm) (UV range) & re-emission in longer visible
wavelengths (400 - 500nm) (bluer range).

 FLUORESCENCE
• The ultimate effect is increasing total amount of light
reflected & increase the brightness/degree of whiteness.

OPTICAL/FLUORESCENT BRIGHTENING AGENTS

Stages of Brightener Application
Optical brighteners can be applied to textile
materials in two different ways: -
• As a separate after treatment process.

• Added to bleaching and finishing

baths.
 Factors Influencing The Function Of Optical
Brighteners

– Substrate

– saturation
– Method of application
– Time of application
– Temperature of
application
– Salt addition
– pH of application
• Substrate

 There are several classes of chemical compounds

whose structure serve the purpose.
 These structures have dye-like properties and in essence are
colorless dyes,
 Anionic OBA's will exhaust onto cotton, wool and silk.

 Cationic ones exhaust onto acrylics and certain polyesters.

 Nonionic ones exhaust onto all synthetics.

 Fibers having good affinity towards optical brighteners are

more brightened and whitened as compared with fibers of
lower affinity.
Saturation
• the amount of brightening solution adsorbed on the
textile materials undergoing physical bleaching process.
– Method of application

• Optical brighteners can be applied by

exhaustion and padding or impregnation.
• By exhaust application there is higher degree
of whiteness as compared with pad application.
• This is because by exhaustion there is more
saturation of the brightening solution.
 – Time of application

• Prolonged time …higher degree of whiteness

as compared with shorter time brightening
treatment.
• This is because of more saturation and
penetration of brightener solution in to the
fibers with increased prolonged time.
 – Salt addition

• Addition of salt in bleach baths where optical

brighteners are promotes exhaustion
• controls the rate of exhaustion of brightening
solution.
pH of application

• Effective pH of brightener solution determines the

stability, solubility and affinity of the brightener
• For instance for wool the pH of the brightening
solution has to be adjusted in acidic range while for
-Temperature of application
• Temperature increase up to saturation limit is
desirable as there will be increased exhaustion
of the brightening solution to the fibers.
• Above the saturation limit an increase in
temperature results in desorption of the
brightener
Types Of Optical Brighteners
• Direct optical brighteners

• Acid optical brighteners

• Basic optical brighteners

• Disperse optical brighteners

Direct optical brighteners
• Directly to the substrate
• easily adsorbed because of high
substantively
• Cotton and viscose

Acid optical brighteners

• applied in acidic media.
• used for animal fiber textiles such as
wool and silk.
Basic optical brighteners
• These are applied in alkaline media
Disperse optical brighteners
• Disperse brighteners are mainly applied for
brightening of polyester and cellulose acetate
fiber textiles.

Forms Of Optical Brightener Application

To Textile Materials
• Powder form

• Paste form

• Liquid form
 Assessment of Bleaching Efficiency
• Since the main objective of bleaching is to transform
textile goods into high whiteness, the most important
assessment of textile goods is assessment of
whiteness.
• This is done by: Comparing the sample against
a standard which can be magnesium oxide or
barium sulphate.
• The standard has 100% reflectance at all wavelengths.
• For bleached samples the reflectance at 460 nm (blue
region) is measured.
• Unbleached cotton shows a reflectance of 55% which
increases to 83-85% on bleaching.
 COMBINED PREPARATORY PROCESSES FOR COTTON

• The pre-treatment processes are designed to remove the

specific type of impurity from a fiber.

• For example, the specific processes to deal with removal

of sizes, natural impurities and coloring components
are known as Desizing, scouring & bleaching
respectively.
All these processes employ specific chemicals and process
conditions like temperature, pH, and time to optionally
remove the specific impurity.
 Flow chart of conventional cotton pre-treatment processes.
The inputs and outputs of the conventional pre-treatment process

All these pre-treatment processes consume large amount of water &

 CONVENTIONAL PRACTICE
 DESIZING
 SCOURING CARRIED OUT SEPARATELY
 BLEACHING

DRAWBACKS
ADVANTAGES
 LONG TIME OF TREATMENT
 IDEAL CHOICE OF CHEMICALS AND
 HIGH ENERGY CONSUMPTION
PROCESS CONDITIONS
 REPRODUCIBLE AND BETTER  HIGH COST
RESULTS  LESS PRODUCTIVITY
 EFFICIENT OPERATION
 PRESENT PRACTICE
COMBINED PREPARATORY PROCESSING

 DESIZING AND SCOURING

 SCOURING AND BLEACHING

 DESIZING, SCOURING AND BLEACHING

COMBINED DESISZING, SCOURING, BLEACHING PREFERRED

DIADVANTAGE
ADVANTAGE
 LOW ENERGY CONSUMPTION  RESTRICTED CHOICE OF CHEMICALS

 LESS TIME  IDEAL CONDITIONS FOR EACH

 HIGH PRODUCTIVITY
OPERATION CAN NOT BE MAINTAINED
 COST SAVING
 COMPROMISE ON PROCESS
EFFICIENCY.
 PRINCIPLE

 COMBINATION OF CHEMICALS SUITBLE FOR EACH OPERATION

 USE OF HIGH CONCENTRATION

 HIGH TEMPERATURE

 SHORTER DURATION OF TREATMENT PARTICULARY CONTINUOUS

PROCESSING
 COMBINED SCOURING AND DESIZING
 REMOVAL OF OILS, FATS, WAXES, PROTEIN AND PECTIC SUBSTANCES (CAUSTIC SODA)
 STARCH REMOVAL ENZYME DESIZING AND ACIDIC DESIZING (CARRIED OUT IN
ACIDIC MEDIUM) NOT SUITABLE BECAUSE HIGH PH AND TEMP. REQUIRED FOR
SCOURING UNDER WHICH ENZYMES AND ACIDIC DESIZING ARE NOT STABLE.
 NOW A POSSIBILITY OF COMBINING DESIZING WITH SCORING ARISES IF
DESIZING CAN BE CARRIED OUT IN ALKALINE CONDITIONS.
CHOICE:OXIDATIVE DESIZING

PEROXY COMPOUNDS UNDER ALKALINE CONDITIONS

 HYDROGEN PEROXIDES
 SOD OR POT (K2S2O8)OR AMM. PERSULPHATE, (MOST COMMON)
 Sodium hydroxide

OXIDATIVE DESIZING
 FREE RADICALS ARE PRODUCED FAVOURING SIZE DEGRADATION RATHER THAN
BLEACHING
A COMBINATION OF PEROXY COMPOUND AND CAUSTIC SODA AT
ELEVATED TEMPERATURE ARE EFFECTIVE FOR COMBINE DESIZING AND
SCOURING OPERATION.
PROCESS PAD-STEAM PROCESS,
Following recipe can be used: (Pad -steam)
 Potassium per sulphate- 3 gpl
 Sodium hydroxide- 70 gpl
 Wetting agent- 1 gpl
 Non ionic detergent- 10 gpl

The fabric is padded and steam for 12 min. The fabric is washed in an
open soapier. The temperature in first compartment is at boil with
gradually reducing temperature in subsequent compartments.
 Combined scouring and bleaching

• The options available for cotton scouring are alkaline scouring with
sodium hydroxide, enzymatic scouring or solvent/emulsion
scouring.

• The approaches to combine scouring and bleaching are

based on hydrogen per oxide as it is carried out under
alkaline conditions.
An example is the following recipe:
 NaOH- 5 %
 H2O2- 1gpl
 Temperature- 70 °C
 PPS (potassium per sulphate) - 0.5 %
 Stabilizer- 0.4 gpl
 Time- 2 hrs
 MLR=1:30
 Combined Desizing, scouring and bleaching
• The attempts to combine all three sequences are
again based on alkaline scoring and bleaching.
• A process for combining all three preparatory processes (Desizing,
scouring & bleaching) was carried out and the optimized a recipe
is given below:
 Scouring agent- 4 %(Emulsifier, Perchloro ethylene)
 Hydrogen per oxide - 1-2 %
 Temperature- 95 °C
 Time- 180 min
 Sodium silicate- 2 %
 Wetting agent- 0.1 % (sodium octyl sulpho succinate)
 pH- 10.5 (soda ash)

• The fabric is padded twice in to 80% pickup and stored in a J-box type
container. After treatment, samples are washed with cold water and
THE PADDED FABRIC CAN BE TREATED IN DIFFERENT
EQUIPMENT SYSTEMS UNDER VARYING
CONDITIONS
PAD-ROLL

1 Grey goods from the loom (cotton or polyester) ;

2 Singeing unit; 3 Impregnation bath at 20-40 deg.C
4 Padding mangle (80-100% pick-up) ;
6 Pad-roll chamber (60-120 min at 90-95 deg.C
5 Washing compartments (95, 95, 70, 50, 30 deg.C
FEW COMBINED DESIZE-SCOUR-BLEACH PROCESSES

J-BOX RANGE

1 Grey goods from the loom (cotton or polyester) ;

2 Singeing unit; 3 Impregnation bath at 20-40 deg.C
4 Padding mangle (80-100% pick-up) ;
7 J-Box (20-60 min at 95-100 deg.C)
5 Washing compartments (95, 95, 70, 50, 30 deg.C)
PAD-STEAM METHOD

1 Grey goods from the loom (cotton or polyester) ;

2 Singeing unit; 3 Impregnation bath at 20-40 deg.C
4 Padding mangle (80-100% pick-up) ;
8 Steamer (5-20 min at 100-107 deg.C
5 Washing compartments (95, 95, 70, 50, 30 deg.C
 DEFINITION

Mercerizing is the process of treatment of cellulosic

material with cold or hot caustic alkali under

specific conditions to improve its appearance

and physical or chemical properties

 Objectives of mercerization

 To improved lustre (shiny).

 To increased ability to absorb dye and moisture regain.

 To improved reactions with a variety of chemicals.

 To improved strength.

 To improved smoothness and hand feel.

 Introduction to mercerization:
 mercerization is applicable only on cellulosic fibres
 The main purpose of mercerization is to alter
chemical and physical properties of the fibre.
the
 cotton is for about ten minutes with application of
19%-26% caustic soda (NaOH) and wetting
agents (used to facilitate the transfer of the NaOH
into the fibers), at room temperature. Then the
fabric is neutralized in an acid bath.
 Caustic soda solution swells cotton fibers
breaking hydrogen bonds and weak van der
 Changes during mercerization process

 Fibre level: (swelling, lumen changes

from bean shape to round shape, etc).

 Molecular level: (Breaking of old bonds, Hydrogen

bond readjustment, Orientation (parallelization) of
molecular chains in longitudinal direction.

 The expanded, chains rearrange and re-orient

and when the caustic soda is removed , the
chains form new bonds in the reorganized state.
 PHYSICAL CHANGE
 Effect of strong caustic soda (Fibre swollen).
 Improved in strength.
 Improved in lusture (under tension).
 Change in cross section from bean shape
to circular shape.
 Swell and opening of fibre structure.
 New bonds are formed upon washing off NaOH.
 Increase in the number of OH group.
The structure is called hydrate cellulose emerges.
 Chemical change:
Improvement in moisture regain.
 Improvement in dye uptake.
 On washing and neutralization; the native cellulose I with
concentration of NaOH formed cellulose II.
 Final state

Morphology
change
 A. Swelling And Shrinkage
• Due to mercerization there is swelling of cellulose.
• This is because of reaction of cellulose
molecules with hydrated alkali ion.
• This means there is diffusion of water and alkali in
to the fiber.
• Due to swelling of cellulose there is
corresponding lengthwise shrinkage of the fiber
 B. Crystallinity
• swelling and shrinkage results breakage of hydrogen
bonds in cellulose.
• In addition molecular chains moved apart from each other.
• As a result the following structural changes/ modifications/
of cellulose are observed.
 Change in percentage crystallinity.
 Change in the size of crystallites and
amorphous volume.
 Change in the orientation of crystalline
and amorphous region
 C. Lusturity
Appearance of cotton before mercerization: -
• Flat ribbon like structure with spiral twists
• Rough surface with no uniformity
•Irregular crossection with broad lumen
Appearance of cotton after mercerization: -
• Circular and round structure without
twists
• Smooth and uniform surface
• Regular crossection with small size
lumen
 D. Tensile strength
 Elimination of weak points from the fibre
 Increased cohesion between individual fibres
 Increased molecular orientation

E. Increased moisture absorption

• Mercerising liquor penetrates into the fibres.
• This causes breakage of hydrogen bonds
in the fibres.
• As a result free hydroxyl groups are formed
in the fibres.
• Due to the presence of hydroxyl groups there is
increased hygroscopicity of the fibres
 F. Increased dye uptake and depth of shade
• Dye uptake
 Increased moisture absorption.
 Increased volume of pores.
 Decreased lumen diameter
• Depth of shade
Increased lusturity.
Reduced light scattering
G. Increased reactivity

 is breakage of hydrogen bonds and formation of

free hydroxyl ions
 responsible for chemical reactions of the fibres
 Reactivity of [MERCERIZED]= 11/2Reactivity of [UNMERCERIZED]
 H. Removal of immature cotton
• Immature cotton is of low strength
• degraded by strong caustic soda solution used
for mercerization process
I. Physical compactness
• After mercerization of yarns and fabrics the
fibres
tend to align closer to each other.
• As a result compactness of yarns and
fabrics
density is increased.
 Mercerization types (methods):

 Slack Mercerization (treatment without tension)

 The cotton fiber swells, the
crossection becomes thicker and the length
is shortened; the fabric becomes denser,
stronger and more dimensionally stable.

 Tension Mercerization (treatment under tension)

 The coiled fiber is straightened & the
lumen disappears.
 Fibers become smoother & permanently
round and rod like in cross-section.
 Effect of tension on mercerization
Type of mercerization
Mercerization effects Mercerization Mercerization
under with out
tension tension
Swelling and shrinkage Low High
Crystallinity High Low
Lusturity High Low
Strength High Low
Moisture absorption Low High
Dye up take Low High
Physical compactness High Low
Reactivity Low High
 Hot mercerization
• Hot mercerization is mercerisation process, which
involves treatment of cotton and other cellulosics in
hot caustic soda solution.

Characteristics of hot mercerization process

– Low swelling of cellulose because of
high mercerizing temperature.
– Fast and uniform penetration of
mercerizing liquor [caustic soda solution] in
to fibres.
Advantage of hot mercerization over
cold mercerisation
• Time of mercerisation is reduced and
hence productivity is increased.
 Liquid ammonia mercerisation
• treatment of cotton and other cellulosics with liquid
ammonia followed by hot water stretching.

• As compared with caustic soda, liquid ammonia is small in

size and its alkalinity is weaker.

• Its small size enables it to penetrate in to the small pores

of cellulosics very readily and causes fibre swelling.

• lower alkalinity and less tendency of

thermal degradation
Types of mercerization’s instrumentations:
Main drawback:

• Fabric shrinkage

• Commercial loss:

Decrease in length and width of fabrics

 ADVANTAGES OF MERCERIZING

The mercerized fibers able to absorb more water,

and therefore absorb more dye.
 colour of the dyed cloth is brighter and deeper.
it also gives the cloth a better resistance to
multiple washings, keeping the colours bright and unchanged
over time.
 increases strength, smoothness, resistance
to
mildew, and also reduces lint (protruding).
 It also increases luster and affinity to dyestuffs.