Chapter 5:

Mechanical Properties &

Mechanical Testing of Materials

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 Chapter Outlines:
5.1Introduction

5.2 Concepts of Stress & Strain

5.3Elastic Deformation

5.4Plastic Deformation

5.5Stress- strain Curve

5.6Hardness

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• You will learn about:

• Stress and strain: What are they and why are

they used instead of load and deformation?
• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
• Plastic behavior: At what point do dislocations
cause permanent deformation? What materials are
most resistant to permanent deformation?
• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?

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To understand and
describe how materials
deform (elongate,
compress, twist)
twist or
break as a function of
applied load,
load time,
time
temperature and other
conditions.
We need first to discuss
standard test methods
and standard language
for mechanical
properties of materials.

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 The mechanical behavior of a material
reflects the relationship between its response
or deformation to an applied load or force.

 Important mechanical properties are

strength,
strength hardness,
hardness ductility,
ductility and stiffness.
stiffness

 Factors to be considered:
• Nature of the applied load
• Duration
• Environmental condition
• Temperature
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 Terminologies:

 Tensile strength - The maximum load in tension (pulling apart

or shearing) which a material can withstand before breaking or
fracturing. Also known as the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) or
maximum strength.
strength

 Ductility - The ability of a metal to be deformed w/o fracturing.

 Hardness –The resistance of a material to deformation by

surface or by abrasion

 Stiffness – material’s resistance to elastic deformation.

deformation The
stiffness of a thermoplastic is indicated by its tensile modulus. The
value of the tensile modulus is determined by the steepness of a
line drawn tangential to the low-strain portion of the curve

 Elasticity – The ability of a material to retain it’s shape once the

load is removed.
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 Engineering Stress (σ):
- the instantaneous load applied to a specimen
divided by its cross- sectional area before any
deformation

 True Stress (σT):

- load F divided by the instantaneous cross-
sectional are Ai over which deformation is
occurring (I.e. the neck, past the tensile point)

- load divided by actual area in the necked-down

region, continues to rise to the point of fracture, in
contrast to the engineering stress.

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 Stress strain test is done only if load is:
- static
- changes relatively slowly with time
- applied uniformly over a cross section or surface of a
member

 Commonly conducted for metals at room temperature

 A destructive test; that is, the test specimen is permanently deformed and
usually fractured.

 Four principal ways in which a load may be applied

a) Tension
b) Compression
c) Shear
05/08/22 d) Torsional LECTURE 6 8
 TENSILE COMPRESSIVE

TORSION

SHEAR

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5.2.1 Tension Test

 A specimens deformed, usually to fracture, with a

gradually increasing tensile load that is applied
uniaxially along the long axis of a specimen.

 The tensile testing machine is designed to elongate

the specimen at a constant rate, and to
continuously and simultaneously measure the
instantaneous applied load (with a load cell) and
the resulting elongations (using an extensometer).

 To compare specimens of different sizes,

sizes the load
is calculated per unit area.

 These definitions of stress & strain allow one to

compare test results for specimens of different
cross- sectional area A0 and different length l0.

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 UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

STANDARD
TENSILE SPECIMEN
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• Engineering stress (σ)
 the instantaneous load applied to a
specimen divided by its cross- sectional area
before any deformation

σ = F / A0 (1)

  = engineering stress (Mpa)

1 Mpa = 106 N/m2
 F = is load applied perpendicular to the
specimen cross section (N)
 A0 = is original cross-sectional area (m2)
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• Engineering strain (ε)
 the change in gauge length of a specimen
divided by its original gauge length

 = li – l 0 = Δ l
(2)
l0 l0

 = is engineering strain (unitless)

l0 = is original length (m)
li = is instantaneous length (m)
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5.2.2 Compression Test

 Similar to the tensile test,except that the

force is compressive and the specimen
contracts along the direction of the
stress.
stress

 This test is used when a material’s

behavior under large and permanent
strain is desired or when the material is
brittle in tension.

 Compression strength is the amount of

stress necessary to cause rupture or
deformation by a predetermined
percentage.

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5.2.3 Shear Test

 Shear : is a force
applied so as to cause
or tend to cause two
adjacent parts of the
same body to slide
relative to each other,
other
in a direction parallel
to their plane of
contact.
contact

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5.2.4 Torsion Test

 Torsion is variation of pure

shear. A shear stress in this case
is a function of applied torque T,
shear strain is related to the
angle of twist, φ.

 Wherein structural member is

twisted.

 Torsional forces produce a

rotational motion about the
longitudinal axis of one end of the
member relative to the other end.

 Normally performed on
cylindrical solid shaft or tubes.

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5.3.1 Stress- strain Behavior

 Definition: is reversible; when the

stress is removed, the material
returns to the dimension it had before
the loading
 Usually strains are small
(except for the case of plastics)
 Deformation that is non- permanent
 Deformation occurs in which stress
and strain are proportional
 The result of plot graph stress- strain
is linear relationship
05/08/22 LECTURE 6 Higher E Higher ‘stiffness’
17
 1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial

F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible!
Non-Linear-
elastic
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 18
 For most metals that are stressed in tension,
tension
stress and strain are proportional to each
other through the relationship

σ = Eε

This is known as Hooke’s Law

E is modulus of elasticity or Young’s

modulus (has the same unit as σ, N/m2 or Pa)
(E = slope of the graph)
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 Modulus of Elasticity (E):

 As a stiffness or a material’s resistance to

elastic deformation

 The greater the modulus,

modulus the stiffer the
material,
material or the smaller the elastic strain that
results from the application of a given stress

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 Linear Elastic Non- Linear Elastic
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  = E
E =  /
= F l0
Ao l
  = E
=El
l0
•  = /E
= F
AoE
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 Definition: not reversible;
reversible when the stress is removed, the
material does not return to its previous dimension

 Deformation occur which stress and strain are not proportional.

 For most metallic materials,

materials elastic deformation only to strain
about 0.005.
0.005 As the material is deformed beyond this point,
point the
stress is no longer proportional to the strain and permanent,
non recoverable or plastic deformation was occurred.

 From atomic perspective, plastic deformation corresponds to the

breaking of bonds with original atom neighbors and
reforming bonds with new neighbors,
neighbors upon removal of stress
they do not return to their original position.
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 1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch p lanes
& planes still
shear sheared

elastic + plastic plastic

F F

Plastic means permanent!

linear linear
elastic elastic

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 M
TS TS
(max. strength)
Necking occur
σy
F

P
engineering
stress
Fracture occur
Typical response of a metal

strain
Typical engineering stress- strain curve

 for structural applications,

applications the yield stress is usually a more important
property than the tensile strength,
strength since once the yield stress has passed,
the structure
05/08/22 has deformed beyond acceptable
LECTURE 6 limits.
limits 26
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5.5.1 Tensile Properties

 Yield point @ proportional limit (P): is the first

point (load) at which the specimen yields,
yields where the
specimen's cross- sectional area begins to decrease
(neck down) significantly, or an increase in strain
occurs without an increase in stress @ the strain
deviates from being proportional to the stress

 Yield strength (σy): the stress required to produce a

very slight yet specified amount of plastic strain; a
strain offset of 0.002 is commonly used

 Tensile strength (TS): the maximum engineering

stress,
stress in tension,
tension that may be sustained without
fracture. Often termed ultimate (tensile)strength
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  Ductility: a measure of a material’s ability to undergo
appreciable plastic deformation before fracture
L f  Lo
can defined by %EL  x100
Lo
% elongation
or Ao  A f
% reduction in area %AR  x100
Ao
smaller %EL
Engineering (brittle if %EL<5%)
tensile
stress,  larg er %EL Ao
Lo Af Lf
(ductile if
%EL>5%)

Engineering tensile strain, 

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  Toughness: the ability to absorb energy up to fracture =
the total area under the strain-stress curve up to fracture

Units: the energy per unit volume, e.g. J/m3

Can be measured by an impact test.

Engineering smaller toughness (ceramics)

tensile larg er toughness
stress,  (metals, PMCs)

smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers

Engineering tensile strain, 

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 Problem :

From the tensile stress- strain behavior for the brass

specimen shown in Figure 6.12, determine the following:

(a) The modulus of elasticity (E)

(b) The yield strength at a strain offset of 0.002
(c) The maximum load that can be sustained by a
cylindrical specimen having an original diameter of 12.8
mm.
(d) The change in length of a specimen originally 250 mm
long that is subjected to a tensile stress of 345 MPa.

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Answer:
(a) E = Δσ = (150 – 0)
MPa
Δε 0.0016 – 0
= 93.8 Gpa

Δσ

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Δε
 (b) 0.002 strain offset line is constructed; its
intersection with the stress- strain curve is
approximately 250 MPa

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(c ) Maximum load that can be sustained by a cylindrical
specimen having an original diameter of 12.8 mm

F = σAo = σ (do)2 π
2
= (450 X 106 N/m2) (12.8 X10-3 m) 2
π
2
= 57,900 N

(d) Change in length of a specimen originally 250mm

long that is subjected to a tensile stress of 345 MPa.

Δl = εlo = (0.06) (250mm) = 15 mm

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 Hardness is a measure of the material’s resistance to
localized plastic deformation
(e.g. dent or scratch)

 Large hardness means:

-- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
- -better wear properties.

 A qualitative Moh’s scale, determined by the ability of

a material to scratch another material:
from 1 (softest = talc) to 10 (hardest = diamond).

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 apply known force measure size
e.g., (1 to 1000g) of indent after
10mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness

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  Both tensile strength and
hardness may be regarded
as degree of resistance to
plastic deformation.

 Hardness is proportional
to the tensile strength – but
note that the proportionality
constant is different for
different materials

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 What are the limits of “safe”
deformation?

σy

For practical engineering design, the yield

strength is usually the important parameter

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