Modern Physics

LARRY D. BUBAN, Ph.D. (SciEd – Physics)

PHYSICAL SCIENCE DEPT.
College of Arts and Sciences
West Visayas State University
Time does not exist, only the clock.
--Albert Einstein--
 Photons
 Quantum theory describes light as
a particle called a photon

 According to quantum theory, a

photon has an energy given by
E = hf = hc/l h = 6.6x10-34 [J s] Planck’s constant,
after the scientist Max Planck.

 The energy of the light is proportional to the frequency

(inversely proportional to the wavelength) ! The higher the
frequency (lower wavelength) the higher the energy of the
photon.

 10 photons have an energy equal to ten times a single

photon.

 Quantum theory describes experiments to astonishing

precision, whereas the classical wave description cannot.
 The Photon (g)

Property Value
Mass 0
Charge 0

 The photon is the “mediator” of the

electromagnetic interaction

 The photon can only interact with objects which

have electric charge
 Momentum
In physics, there’s another quantity which we hold just as
sacred as energy, and this is momentum.

For an object with mass, momentum is given by:

 
 

p  mv The units are: [kg] [m/s] == [kg m/s]

p  mv

Unlike energy, which is a scalar, momentum is a vector. That is

it has both magnitude & direction. The direction is along the
direction of the velocity vector.

The reason it is important in physics, is, because like Energy:

TOTAL MOMENTUM IS ALWAYS CONSERVED
 Do photons carry momentum ?
DeBroglie’s proposed that the a photon not only carries energy,
but also carries momentum.

But, p = mv, and photon’s have m=0, so how can it be that the
momentum is not zero??

p  h/

DeBroglie postulated that photons carry momentum, and their

momentum is:
p  E /c
If we substitute: E = hc/l into this equation, we get:

Momentum carried by a photon

p  h/ with wavelength l
 DeBroglie’s Relation
DeBroglie
relation

p = h / l Photons carry momentum !!!

l = h / p

E = hc / l Photons also carry energy !!!

Both energy & momentum are inversely proportional to the

wavelength !!!

 The highest energy photons are those which have

small wavelength (that’s why gamma rays are so dangerous)
 Photoelectric Effect (I)
“Classical” Method What if we try this ?

Increase energy by Vary wavelength, fixed amplitude

increasing amplitude

electrons electrons
emitted ? emitted ?
No
No
No Yes, with
low KE
No
Yes, with
No high KE

No electrons were emitted until the frequency of the light exceeded

a critical frequency, at which point electrons were emitted from
the surface! (Recall: small l  large f)
 Photoelectric Effect (II)
 Electrons are attracted to the (positively charged) nucleus by the
electrical force

 In metals, the outermost electrons are not tightly bound, and can
be easily “liberated” from the shackles of its atom.

 It just takes sufficient energy…

Classically, we increase the energy

of an EM wave by increasing the
intensity (e.g. brightness)

Energy a A2

But this doesn’t work ??

 PhotoElectric Effect (III)

 An alternate view is that light is acting like a particle

 The light particle must have sufficient energy to “free” the

electron from the atom.

 Increasing the Amplitude is simply increasing the number

of light particles, but its NOT increasing the energy of
each one!
 Increasing the Amplitude does diddly-squat!

 However, if the energy of these “light particle” is related

to their frequency, this would explain why higher frequency
light can knock the electrons out of their atoms, but low
frequency light cannot…
 Photo-Electric Effect (IV)
 In this “quantum-mechanical” picture, the energy of the
light particle (photon) must overcome the binding energy of the
electron to the nucleus.

 If the energy of the photon exceeds the binding energy, the

electron is emitted with a KE = Ephoton – Ebinding.

 The energy of the photon is given by E=hn, where the

constant h = 6.6x10-34 [J s] is Planck’s constant.

“Light particle”

Before Collision After Collision

 The Compton Effect
In 1924, A. H. Compton performed an experiment
where X-rays impinged on matter, and he measured
the scattered radiation.

Incident X-ray Louis de Broglie

wavelength M
A
l1 T Scattered X-ray
T wavelength l2 > l1
E
R l2
e

Electron comes flying out

Problem: According to the wave picture of light, the incident
X-ray should give up some of its energy to the electron, and
emerge with a lower energy (i.e., the amplitude is lower), but
should have l2=l1.
It was found that the scattered X-ray did not have the same
wavelength ?
 ***Electron-Volts (eV)***
 When talking about subatomic particles, and individual photons,
energies are very small (~10-12 or smaller).

 It’s cumbersome to always deal with these powers of 10.

 We introduce a new unit of energy, called the electron-volt (eV).

 An [eV] is equivalent to the amount of energy a single electron gains

when it is accelerated across a voltage of 1 [V].

 Your TV tube accelerates electrons using 20,000 [V] = 20 [kV].

-20 [kV] Electric

GPE
1 kg Potential
10[J] 0 [V]
+
1m
-
0 [kV] 0 [J]
-20 [kV]
 More on [eV]
How much energy does an electron gain when it is accelerated across
a voltage of 20,000 [V] ?
E = 20,000 [eV]
[V] is a unit of “Potential”
[eV] is a unit of Energy (can be converted to [J])

How can you convert [eV] to [J] ?

Not too hard… the conversion is: 1 [eV] = 1.6x10-19 [J]
So, let’s do an example !
Convert 20 [keV] to [J].
Since the “k” == kilo = 1000 = 103, 20 [keV] = 20,000 [eV] = 2x104 [eV]

4  1.6x10 -19
[J]  15
2x10 [eV]    3.2 x10 [J]
 1 [eV] 
=1

It’s a lot easier to say “20 [keV]” than 3.2x10-15 [J] !

 Even more on [eV]
So, [eV] IS A UNIT OF ENERGY;

It’s not a “type” of energy (such as light, mass, heat, etc).

When talking about energies of single photons, or of subatomic particles,

we often use this unit of energy, or some variant of it.

So,

1 [eV] = 1.6x10-19 [J] (can be used to go back & forth between

these two energy units)

1 [keV] = 1000 [eV] = 103 [eV] “k = kilo (103)””

1 [MeV] = 1,000,000 [eV] = 106 [eV] “M = mega (106)”
1 [GeV] = 1,000,000,000 [eV] = 109 [eV] “G = giga (109)”
 Example 1
A Cobalt-60 nucleus is unstable, and undergoes a decay where a 1173 [keV] photon is
emitted. From what region of the electromagnetic spectrum does this come?

The energy is 1173 [keV], which is

1173 [keV] = 1173x103 [eV] = 1.173x106 [eV].

* First convert this energy to [J],

E = 1.173x106 [eV] * (1.6x10-19 [J] / 1 [eV])

= 1.88x10-13 [J]

* Now, to get the wavelength, we use:

E = hc/l, that is l = hc/E.

So, l = 6.63x10-34[J s]*3x108[m/s]/1.88x10-13 [J]

= 1.1 x 10-12 [m]

* Now, convert [m] to [nm],

1.1 x 10-12 [m] * (109 [nm] / 1 [m])
= 1.1x10-3 [nm]

 It’s a GAMMA Ray

 Example 2
An electron has a mass of 9.1x10-31 [kg].

What is it’s rest mass energy in [J] and in [eV].

E = mc2 = 9.1x10-31*(3x108)2 = 8.2x10-14 [J]

Now convert to [eV]

 1 [eV] 
-14 5
8.2x10 [J]  -19   5.1x10 [eV]=0.51 [MeV]
 1.6x10 [J] 

What is an electron’s rest mass?

According to Einstein, m = E/c2, that is:

[mass] = [Energy] / c2

m = E / c2 = 0.51 [MeV/c2]
 Example 3
A proton has a mass of 1.67x10-27 [kg].

What is it’s rest mass energy in [J] and in [eV].

E = mc2 = 1.67x10-27 *(3x108)2 = 1.5x10-10 [J]

Now convert to [eV]

 1 [eV] 
-10 8
1.5x10 [J]  -19   9.4x10 [eV]=940 [MeV]
 1.6x10 [J] 

What is a proton’s rest mass?

According to Einstein, m = E/c2, that is:

[mass] = [Energy] / c2

m = E / c2 = 940 [MeV/c2]
 The Atom

Electrons Nucleus

5x10-15 m

0.0000000002 m
(2 x 10-10 m)
 Atoms and Space
Approximately what fraction of the volume of an atom does the
nucleus consume?

Assume that the nucleus and the atom can be approximated via
spheres with the radii given below?

Use the following data.

• The radius of the nucleus is ~ 5x10-15 [m].

• The electrons orbits at a radius of ~ 2x10-10 [m]
• Ignore the electrons size, as it is unimportant.
• The volume of a sphere is (4/3)pR3.
 What’s in the Nucleus?

Protons
Neutrons
Protons are
positively charged
and that amount
of charge is exactly Neutrons are
equal (and opposite) similar to protons
to the charge of the (ie., similar mass), but
electron have a net charge of
zero.

Recall: 1 [fm] = 10-15 [m]

 Are protons and neutrons
fundamental?
(By fundamental, I mean are they indivisible?

The answer is NO !
Protons and neutrons are made of smaller objects called quarks!

1x 10-18 m
(at most)  Protons
2 “up” quarks
1 “down” quark

 Neutrons
1 “up” quark
(1.6 x 10-15 m) 2 “down” quarks
 Neils Bohr and the Quantum Atom
Circa 1910-1925
 Pointed out serious problems with
Rutherford’s atom
 Electrons should radiate as they orbit the
nucleus, and in doing so, lose energy, until
they spiral into the nucleus.
 Atoms only emit quantized amounts of
energy (i.e., as observed in Hydrogen spectra)
 He postulated
 Electric force keeps electrons in orbit
 Only certain orbits are stable, and they do
not radiate energy

Radiation is emitted when an e- jumps from

an outer orbit to an inner orbit and the energy
difference is given off as a radiation. 1885-1962
Awarded the Nobel Prize in 1922
 Bohr’s Picture of the Atom
Before Electrons circle the nucleus
due to the Electric force After
Radiated
n = photon
5 Electron 5
4 in lowest 4
“allowed”
3 energy level 3
2 (n=1) 2
1 1

Electron
in excited
state Electron falls to
(n=5) the lowest
energy level
Allowed Orbits

Note: There are many more energy levels beyond n=5, they are omitted for simplicity
 Atomic Radiation
It is now “known” that when an electron is in an “excited state”,
it spontaneously decays to a lower-energy stable state.

E5 > E4 > E3 > E2 > E1 The difference in energy, DE, is given by:

One example could be:

DE = E5 – E1 = hn = Ephoton
Energy Electron Energy Electron h = Planck’s constant = 6.6x10-34 [J s]
in excited in lowest n = frequency of light [hz]
state state
(higher PE) (lower PE)
The energy of the light is DIRECTLY
PROPORTIONAL to the frequency, n.
E5 n=5 E5 n=5
Recall that the frequency, n, is related to
E4 n=4 E4 n=4 the wavelength by:
E3 n=3 E3 n=3
c = nl (n = c / l)
E2 n=2 E2 n=2
E1 E1 So, higher frequency  higher energy
n=1 n=1
 lower wavelength
Before After This is why UV radiation browns your skin
but visible light does not !
 Hydrogen atom energy “levels”
Quantum physics provides the tools to compute the values of
E1, E2, E3, etc…The results are:
5
En = -13.6 / n 2
4
3 Energy Level Energy En (eV)
2
1 1 -13.6
2 -3.4
3 -1.51
4 -0.85
5 -0.54
These results DO DEPEND ON THE TYPE OF ATOM OR MOLECULE
So, the difference in energy between the 3rd and 1st quantum state is:
Ediff = E3 – E1 = -1.51 – (-13.6) = 12.09 (eV)

When this 3 1 atomic transition occurs, this energy is released

in the form of electromagnetic energy.
 Radioactivity
By the end of the 1800s, it was known that certain
isotopes emit penetrating rays. Three types of radiation
were known:

1) Alpha particles (a)

2) Beta particles (b)

3) Gamma-rays (g)
Where do these particles come from ?

These particles generally come

from the nuclei of atomic isotopes
which are not stable.

 The decay chain of Uranium

produces all three of these forms
of radiation.

 Let’s look at them in more detail…

Note: This is the
atomic weight, which
is the number of
Alpha Particles (a)
protons plus neutrons

Radium Radon
+ n p
p n
R226 Rn222
a (4He)
88 protons 86 protons 2 protons
138 neutrons 136 neutrons 2 neutrons

The alpha-particle (a) is a Helium nucleus.

It’s the same as the element Helium, with the

electrons stripped off !
 Beta Particles (b)

Carbon Nitrogen +
C14 e-
N14

6 protons 7 protons electron

8 neutrons 7 neutrons (beta-particle)

We see that one of the neutrons from the C14 nucleus

“converted” into a proton, and an electron was ejected.
The remaining nucleus contains 7p and 7n, which is a nitrogen
nucleus. In symbolic notation, the following process occurred:

np+e (+n)
Yes, the same
neutrino we saw
previously
 Gamma particles (g)
In much the same way that electrons in atoms can be in an
excited state, so can a nucleus.

Neon Neon
Ne20 Ne20 +

10 protons 10 protons
gamma
10 neutrons 10 neutrons
(in excited state) (lowest energy state)

A gamma is a high energy light particle.

It is NOT visible by your naked eye because it is not in

the visible part of the EM spectrum.
 Gamma Rays

Neon
Ne20

Neon
Ne20 +

The gamma from nuclear decay

is in the X-ray/ Gamma ray
part of the EM spectrum
(very energetic!)
 How do these particles differ ?

Mass*
Particle Charge
(MeV/c2)

Gamma (g) 0 0

Beta (b) ~0.5 -1

Alpha (a) ~3752 +2

* m = E / c2
 Rate of Decay
Beyond knowing the types of particles which are emitted
when an isotope decays, we also are interested in how frequently
one of the atoms emits this radiation.

 A very important point here is that we cannot predict when a

particular entity will decay.

 We do know though, that if we had a large sample of a radioactive

substance, some number will decay after a given amount of time.

 Some radioactive substances have a very high “rate of decay”,

while others have a very low decay rate.

 To differentiate different radioactive substances, we look to

quantify this idea of “decay rate”
 Half-Life
 The “half-life” (h) is the time it takes for half the atoms of a
radioactive substance to decay.

 For example, suppose we had 20,000 atoms of a radioactive

substance. If the half-life is 1 hour, how many atoms of that
substance would be left after:

#atoms % of atoms
Time remaining remaining

1 hour (one lifetime) ? 10,000 (50%)

2 hours (two lifetimes) ? 5,000 (25%)

3 hours (three lifetimes) ? 2,500 (12.5%)

 Half-life (days)
Nuclide Organ where concentrated Physical Biological
3 H Total Body 4.6x103 19
1
14 C Fat Bone 2.07x106 35
6 180
21 Na Total Body .62 29
11
32 P Bone 14.3 1200
15
35 S Skin 87.1 22
16
36 Cl Total Body 1.6x108 29
17
12 K Muscle .52 43
19
15 Ca Bone 152 18,000
20
59 Fe Blood 46.3 65
26
64 Cu Liver .54 39
29
131 I Thyroid 8.1 180
51
 Lifetime (I)

 The lifetime of a free neutron is 14.7 minutes.

 If I had 1000 free neutrons in a box, after 14.7

minutes some number of them will have decayed.

 The number remaining after some time is given by the

radioactive decay law

 t ln 2  N0 = starting number of
  particles
T
N  N 0e   t = particle’s lifetime

This is the “exponential”. It’s

value is 2.718, and is a very useful
number. Can you find it on your
calculator?
 Lifetime (II)
 t ln 2 
 
T
Note by slight rearrangement of this formula: N  N 0e  

 t ln 2 
N  
Fraction of particles which did not decay: e  T 

No
1.20
# Time Fraction of
lifetimes (min) remaining 1.00

neutrons

Fraction Survived
0.80

0t 0 1.0 0.60

1t 14.7 0.368 0.40

2t 29.4 0.135 0.20

3t 44.1 0.050 0.00

0 2 4 6 8 10

4t 58.8 0.018 Lifetimes

5t 73.5 0.007 After 4-5 lifetimes, almost all of the

unstable particles have decayed away!
 Lifetime (III)

 Not all particles have the same lifetime.

 Uranium-238 has a lifetime of about 6 billion

(6x109) years !

 Some subatomic particles have lifetimes that are

less than 1x10-12 sec !

 Given a batch of unstable particles, we cannot

say which one will decay.

 The process of decay is statistical. That is, we can

only talk about either,
1) the lifetime of a radioactive substance*, or
2) the “probability” that a given particle will decay.