What is the difference

between a physical change

and a chemical reaction?

08/07/2022
REVERSIBLE REACTIONS
Many chemical reactions are considered irreversible –
the products that are made cannot readily be changed
back into their reactants.

For example, when wood burns

it is impossible to turn it back
into unburnt wood again!

Similarly, when magnesium

reacts with hydrochloric acid
to form magnesium chloride
and hydrogen, it is not easy
to reverse the reaction and
obtain the magnesium.
 What are reversible reactions?

Reversible reactions occur when the backwards reaction

(products  reactants) takes place relatively easily under
certain conditions. The products turn back into the reactants.

A + B C + D

(reactants) (products)
Many biochemical reactions (those that take place inside
organisms) are reversible.

For example, in the lungs, oxygen binds to haemoglobin

(Hb) in red blood cells to create oxyhaemoglobin.

When the red blood cells are transported to tissues, the

oxyhaemoglobin dissociates back to haemoglobin and
oxygen.

Hb + 4O2 Hb.4O2
Aim: to look for evidence of reversible reactions taking place.

– Take 1 spatula of hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals and

add to a boiling tube.
– Heat in a Bunsen flame until no further change is seen.
– Transfer the solid to a fresh boiling tube, then add a few
drops of water to the test tube.
 Practical follow-up questions
1. What did you observe during the reaction when heating?
2. What are the products of this reaction?
3. What did you observe when you added the water?
4. What do the following words mean?
a)Hydrated b) anhydrous c) condensed
5. The formula for hydrated copper sulphate is
CuSO4.5H2O CuSO4 + 5H2O
Complete a balanced equation for the reaction.
6. Why is this described as a reversible reaction?
7. What type of a reaction is the forward / reverse reaction?
8. Extension: Anhydrous copper (II) sulfate could be used as a fuel for heating
(just add water to get the heat). Explain why it would not be a very economical
fuel.
08/07/2022
 Exam PPQ

08/07/2022
In each case briefly describe
1. Heating hydrated copper(II) sulfate
what you did and describe
what you observe? Explain 2. Heating ammonium chloride
how each example is a
reversible reaction. 3. Copper(II) sulfate solution,
ammonia, then sulfuric aicd

EXT: The pictures represent 3 important reversible

chemical reactions. Using these examples, write a
paragraph to persuade the reader of the importance of
reversible reactions.
 Heating ammonium chloride
An ammonium salt can be made by reacting ammonia
with an acid. Some of the salt will decompose back into
the reactants when heated.

hydrogen ammonium
ammonia + chloride chloride
NH3 (g) + HCl (g) NH4Cl (s)

NH4Cl reforms in
NH4Cl decomposes the cooler part
back into NH3 and of the test tube
HCl gases when
heated
08/07/2022
 Reversible Reactions: 2 – Equilibria 07/08/22

Learning Objectives
• Describe the features of a system in dynamic equilibrium.
• State and explain the effects that changing conditions have on the ‘position of
equilibrium’:
• Changing pressure
• Changing temperature
• Changing concentrations.
• Explain why the addition of a catalyst has no effect on the position of an
equilibrium.

Links to prior learning: Mg +

2HC
l H2 +

Amount of product
Rate of Reaction – The graph on the right MgC
l2
shows the volume of hydrogen produced as
the reaction between hydrochloric acid and
magnesium proceeds. Can you explain the
shape of the graph?
THINK PAIR SHARE
08/07/2022
Time
What if it were a reversible reaction:

Amount of product
A+B C+D
Imagine that you start with 100% A
& B. The rate of the forwards
reaction is initially very high, but
gradually drops over time. What is
the initial rate of the backwards Time
reaction going to be? How will it
change over time?

If the rate of forwards reaction

becomes equal to the rate of the
backwards reaction, what will
happened to the relative proportions
of reactants and products?
08/07/2022
 Since rate α How equilibrium is
concentration:
Rate of forwards
established
reaction decreases even
tu ally
&
Rate of backwards Rate of forwards Concentrations
reaction increases reaction = rate of reactants and
of backwards products remain
reaction constant

[Reactants] decreases
[Products] increases

Rate of forward reaction =high Concentrations Rate of forwards

Rate of backwards reaction = 0 of reactants and and backwards
products remain reactions are no
constant longer changing

[Reactants] = high
[Products] = 0
 What is dynamic equilibrium?
All reversible reactions, left to their own
devices, will reach what will call a state
of dynamic equilibrium - there is no
overall change in the amount of
products and reactants, since the rate
of the forwards reaction is equal to the
rate of backwards reaction.

Can you suggest why we

describe a system in this state
as being in dynamic
equilibrium?

NOTE: Dynamic equilibrium can only be established

in a closed system, otherwise the products would
escape.
08/07/2022
 How can this be used to
Modelling Dynamic Equilibrium model what happens in a
reversible reaction?

Aim: to model the concept of dynamic equilibrium processes…

Before you start: Count how many cubes you have in total. Use a ruler as a
boundary between the two players.

Rules for players:

1. Player A starts with all the cubes on their side of the boundary.
2. Player A – for every 6 cubes you have you need to transfer 1 cube to the
opponents side.
3. Player B –for every 4, transfer 1 to the player A.
4. Both players transfer their squares simultaneously.
5. After each turn, record the number of cubes on each side.
6. Each player takes turns to transfer cubes across the boundary, until
equilibrium is reached.

Extension Thinking: what would happen if you added a 7th step where you…
a) increased the number of cubes that player B transfers; b) gave player A an
additional 50 cubes; c) took away 10 of player B’s cubes?
 Features of a dynamic
equilibrium
1. The reaction is reversible.
2. The rate of the forwards reaction is
equal to the rate of the backwards
reaction.
3. The concentration of reactants and
products are constant.
 DISCUSS
IN PAIRS:

Explain how this cartoon is representative of 1 min

dynamic equilibrium.
 The ‘position of dynamic
equilibrium’ is not necessarily at a
half-way point, i.e. when there are
equal amounts of products and
reactants. It may be at a position
where there are mainly reactants
with little product, or vice versa.

The position of equilibrium is influenced by two main factors:

 temperature
 concentration (or pressure for reactions involving gases)
ON YOU
Adding a catalyst speeds WHITEB R
OARD S
up the time it takes to How does a catalyst speed up a reaction?
reach equilibrium, but does What would the new energy level diagram
look like? How does this explain why a
not change the position of catalyst does not impact equilibrium?
equilibrium.
Once established, a
system will remain in
equilibrium until the
conditions are changed
so that one direction
becomes more
favourable than the
other.
Eventually equilibrium will re-establish itself, but at a new
position (with a different proportion of reactants to
products compared to before).

If the change favoured the backwards reaction we would

say that “equilibrium has shifted to the left”, or “…to the
right” if the change favours the forwards reaction.
 ON YOUR
WHITEBOARDS:

90 seconds

Are the following statements true or false?

 Bismuth chloride reacts with water to produce a white
precipitate of bismuth oxychloride and hydrochloric acid.

bismuth bismuth hydrochloric

chloride
+ water
oxychloride
+ acid
BiCl3 (aq) + H2O (l) BiOCl (s) + 2HCl (aq)

What will happen if more H2O is added?

The frequency of successful collisions between BiCl3 and H2O

increases. Therefore the rate of the forwards reaction will increase.

Equilibrium will eventually re-establish itself but with less of the

reactant molecules and more of the product.
We say that equilibrium has “shifted to the right”.
 Bismuth chloride reacts with water to produce a white
precipitate of bismuth oxychloride and hydrochloric acid.

bismuth bismuth hydrochloric

chloride
+ water
oxychloride
+ acid
BiCl3 (aq) + H2O (l) BiOCl (s) + 2HCl (aq)

What will happen if more H2O is added?

 The equilibrium will shift to the right
What would
 More BiOCl and HCl will be produced. you observe?
 iodine iodine
chlorine + chloride trichloride
Cl2 (g) + ICl (l) ICl3 (s)

v. pale green brown yellow

What effect will adding Equilibrium More ICl3 produced,

more Cl2 have on the shifts to the so it will become
colour of the mixture? right. more yellow.
What effect will Equilibrium More ICl produced,
removing Cl2 have shifts to the so it will become
on the colour of the left. more brown.
mixture?
Nitrogen dioxide is in a state of dynamic equilibrium with
dinitrogen tetroxide. The forward reaction is exothermic
and the backwards reaction is endothermic.

nitrogen dioxide dinitrogen tetroxide

2NO2 (g) N2O4 (g)

What will happen if the temperature is increased?

How will the increase in temperature affect the rate of the
forwards reaction and the rate of the backwards reaction?

 The equilibrium will shift in the endothermic direction (in

this case, to the left).
 More NO2 will be produced.
Nitrogen dioxide is in a state of dynamic equilibrium with
dinitrogen tetroxide. Two molecules of nitrogen dioxide
react to form one molecule of dinitrogen tetroxide.

nitrogen dioxide dinitrogen tetroxide

2NO2 (g) N2O4 (g)

What will happen if the pressure is increased?

 The equilibrium will shift in the direction that produces
fewer molecules of gas (in this case to the right
since there are fewer molecules of gas on the right
hand side of the equation).
 More N2O4 will be produced.
Nitrogen dioxide is in a state of dynamic equilibrium with
dinitrogen tetroxide. Two molecules of nitrogen dioxide
react to form one molecule of dinitrogen tetroxide.

nitrogen dioxide dinitrogen tetroxide

2NO2 (g) N2O4 (g)

What will happen if the pressure is increased?

 The equilibrium will shift to the right since there are
fewer molecules of gas on the right hand side of the
equation.
 The equilibrium yield of N2O4 will increase.
 Le C
Whenever a change is made to a reversible Prin hatelier
ciple ’s
reaction in dynamic equilibrium, the equilibrium
will shift to try and oppose the change.

Condition Effect
Temperature Increasing the temperature shifts the
equilibrium in the direction that takes in heat.

Concentration Increasing the concentration of a substance

shifts the equilibrium in the direction that
consumes that substance.
Pressure Increasing the pressure shifts the equilibrium
in the direction that produces less gas.
When the mixture is plunged into an ice bath the colour becomes much paler. Explain
whether the forwards reaction is exothermic or endothermic.
Forming the N-N bond in the N2O4 molecule releases energy, so is an
exothermic process. So, when temperature is lowered the
equilibrium yield of colourless N2O4 increases

-196 o
C
08/07/2022 0oC 23 oC 35oC 50oC
What would you expect to
observe when you add: a)
concentrated hydrochloric
acid; and b) water, to the
equilibrium mixture?
Explain your answer with
reference to Le Chatelier’s
principle. DEMO:
Cobalt
Equilibria

Now watch the demonstration and read the questions from

the worksheet – write a paragraph to explain the effect of
temperature on the cobalt equilibrium. Each question
should be addressed within your answer.
TASK: Complete worksheet
 Reversible Reactions:
07/08/22
3 – Le Chatelier’s Princple
Learning Objectives
• Describe the features of a system in dynamic equilibrium.
• State and explain the effects that changing conditions have on the ‘position of
equilibrium’:
• Changing pressure
• Changing temperature
• Changing concentrations.
• Explain why the addition of a catalyst has no effect on the position of an
equilibrium.

On Your Whiteboards…
nitrogen dioxide dinitrogen tetroxide
Give two changes that
would result in a 2NO2 (g) N2O4 (g)
deepening of the brown
colour. brown ∆H= -57kJ/mol colourless

08/07/2022
Reversible Reactions: 4 – Haber Process 07/08/22

Learning Objectives:
• Describe and explain the essential conditions for the manufacture of
ammonia by the Haber process including the sources of the hydrogen
and nitrogen.

On the handouts:
Le Chatelier’s Principle – “If a system that is in equilibrium is disturbed by
changing conditions, the system will shift the position of equilibrium in order
to counteract those changes.”

Complete the worksheet ‘Le Chatelier’s Principle’.

You could make any one of the following changes:
• Change pressure
• Change temperature
• Add a reagent (THINK ACID-BASE REACTIONS)
08/07/2022
 The Guano Wars
(1879-1884*)
What is guano? Why was it
worth going to war for?

08/07/2022
 READ the text and
During the 19th Century, the populations of Europe and America rose then answer the
very rapidly. More food and more crops were needed to feed more and questions below
more people. So farmers began to use nitrogen compounds for
fertilisers. The main source of nitrogen compounds for fertilisers was
sodium nitrate from Chile. By 1900 supplies of this were running out.
Another supply of nitrogen had to be found or many people would
starve. The obvious source of nitrogen was the air (which constitutes
about 78%). Unfortunately, nitrogen is not very reactive. This made it
difficult to convert into compounds that can be absorbed by plants
from the soil. A German chemist called Fritz Haber solved the problem.

In 1904, Haber began studying the reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen. By
1908 he had found the optimal conditions for manufacturing ammonia and the so-
called Haber Process became the most important method for manufacturing
ammonia.
1. Why was it necessary for farmers to increasingly use fertilizers for their crops?
2. What factors encouraged Haber to look into the reaction of nitrogen with hydrogen?
3. Suggest what is meant by the term optimal conditions for the Haber Process?
 nitrogen + hydrogen ammonia

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)

Where can we source our raw materials?

Hydrogen: Steam Reforming Nitrogen: Extraction from Air
CH4 + H2O ⇌ CO + H2 The air contains 78%
nitrogen? But how might we
Add state symbols
Steam and balance
reforming is anthe
above equation extract it from the mixture?
endothermic process? Can
you suggest conditions that 2H2(g) + O2(g)  2H2O(g)
would shift the equilibrium to
the products?

Hydrogen is sourced from natural gas Nitrogen is sourced from the air
08/07/2022
 nitrogen + hydrogen ammonia

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)

The reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen is a reversible

reaction, so it never goes to completion.
Why is this an issue for companies that are in the business of
manufacturing ammonia?

Yield – the total amount of desirable product you get (in a given
time). NB: nevertheless this term is often (incorrectly) used
synonymously with percentage yield !
Equilibrium Yield – the amount of desirable product you get as a
percentage of the maximum amount you could get if all of your
reactants are converted into products.
 nitrogen + hydrogen ammonia

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)

Factors that affect equilibrium
yield
To determine the optimal Bond Bond energy Bond Bond energy
(kJ/mol) (kJ/mol)
temperature, we first need to
know whether the reaction is H-H 436 C-O 358
Cl-Cl 242 O=O 498
exothermic or endothermic….
H-Cl 431 O-H 464
C-C 346 NN 946
C=C 612 N-H 391

Marking Checklist:
Ensure you follow these steps when carrying out ∆H calculations:
 Written out the full B.C.E.;
 Converted your equation into a stick model format (this helps you to see all the bonds, so
you don’t make any counting errors);
 Arranged into a table divided into ‘Bonds broken’ and ‘Bonds formed’;
 Total energies calculated WITH CORRECT SIGNAGE (+ve for bonds broken and –ve for
bonds formed);
 A written calculation for total energy change;
 Units and with final answer (kJ/mol).
 The yield of ammonia produced by the Haber process
depends on the temperature and pressure of the reaction.
ammonia yield (%)

pressure (atm)

High equilibrium yields are favoured by:

1. _________ temperature
2. _________ pressure
The highest equilibrium yield
of ammonia is theoretically
produced by using a low
temperature and a high
pressure.
In practice, these conditions
are not used. Why?
Lowering the temperature slows down the rate of reaction.
This means it takes longer to get to a state of equilibrium.
Increasing the pressure means stronger, more expensive
equipment is needed. This increases the cost of producing
the ammonia.
A compromise is reached to make an acceptable yield in
a reasonable timeframe while keeping costs down.
To produce a high yield of ammonia, but with a fast rate
of reaction and without the need for overly expensive
equipment, the Haber process is carried out at 450 °C
and 200 atmospheres.

The most important factor in

deciding what conditions to use is
therefore not yield, but total cost.

What costs are involved in

the industrial production of
ammonia?

 raw materials  energy

 equipment  wages
What else can be done to maximise productivity in the
manufacture of ammonia?

 An iron catalyst is used to increase the rate of

attainment of equilibrium. It speeds up both the
forward and backward reaction, so the position of
equilibrium is not affected.
 The ammonia is cooled, liquefied and then removed as
it is produced. This causes the equilibrium to shift to
the right to produce more ammonia.
 Unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are recycled and
given another chance to react.
 nitrogen + hydrogen ammonia

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)

Factors that affect percentage

High pressure shifts equilibrium to the right,

Pressure since there are fewer molecules of gas on the
RHS.
yield

Low temperature shifts equilibrium to the right,

Temperature
since the forwards reaction is exothermic.

The mixture is cooled, and the ammonia

Concentration condenses. It is tapped off, which shifts
equilibrium to the right.
 www.youtube.com/watch?v=g5wNg_dKsYY&safe=active

End of lesson check

• Can you now…
– Explain why 450°C represents a compromise?
– Explain why 200atm represents a compromise?
– Explain why iron is used as a catalyst?
– Explain why unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are recycled?
– Explain the choice of reacting ratios (1:3 by volume)?
For any question about the effect that For questions about industrial
changing conditions has on yield: processes, there are additional
considerations:
Identify which direction the equilibrium ‘shifts towards’ Not only does industry have to consider the
yield, but how quickly that yield can be
Increasing pressure shifts produced. Factors that speed up the rate of
Increasing temperature
equilibrium towards the reaction are:
shifts equilibrium in the
side of the equation with • Higher temperatures
endothermic direction.
fewer gaseous molecules • Higher pressures
• The inclusion of a catalyst
State the effect on yield (e.g. “more NO2 is produced) Other factors worth considering:
• Extra cost (energy/equipment)
associated with higher pressures.
• Recycling of unreacted raw materials
EXAMPLE: State and explain the effect of
depressing the plunger of a syringe containing EXAMPLE: In the Haber Process the forwards reaction is exothermic.
a mixture of NO2 and N2O4 in equilibrium. The chosen operating temperature within the reactor is 450oC.
Explain why this temperature is known as a compromise.
2NO2 (g) ⇄ N2O4 (g)
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇄ 2NH3(g)
MODEL ANSWER: As the pressure is increased
equilibrium will shift to the right, since there MODEL ANSWER: Decreasing the temperature will shift the
are fewer gaseous molecules on the right equilibrium in the exothermic direction (forwards), thus producing
hand side of the equation. This will cause the a higher yield of ammonia. However, the lower the temperature is,
yield of colourless N2O4 to increase, causing the slower the rate of reaction, since there will be fewer successful
the mixture to become paler. collisions in a given time.
 Model of an equilibrium

1. What does the volume of water in each

measuring cylinder represent?
2. What does the level of water in each
beaker represent?
3. What happens when the size of the
transfer beakers are unequal?

08/07/2022