YEAR 12 CHEMISTRY

MODULE 5 – EQUILIBRIUM AND ACID REACTIONS

Sections Covered:
Static and Dynamic Equilibrium
Factors that affect Equilibrium
Calculating the Equilibrium Constant (Keq)
Solution Equilibria
 Module 5 – Year 12 HSC Chemistry

MODULE 5 – SECTION 1: Static and Dynamic Equilibrium

PHYSICAL CHANGES: Products do not include new substances, but rather a change in physical properties such as state (e.g. the
boiling of water from liquid to gas)
CHEMICAL CHANGES: Reactants produce new substances, rearrangement of atoms to form products different from reactants
(e.g. electric current flows through water, atoms in water rearrange to form O 2 and H2). Signs of this could be a colour change,
formation of a precipitate/gas, temperature change, odour change.
A reaction:

• Favours movement towards greater randomness (indicated by a positive sign for entropy, ∆S)
• Favours the release of heat energy (indicated by a negative sign for enthalpy, ∆H)

Syllabus Dot-point:

• Model static and dynamic equilibrium and analyse the differences between open and closed systems.

EQUILIBRIUM:

• The rate of the forward reaction is the same as the reverse reaction.
• Macroscopic features such as colour or the temperature remain, microscopic changes take place (i.e. reactant particles
changing to product particles and vice versa).
Types of Equilibrium: Types of Systems:
STATIC DYNAMIC OPEN CLOSED
EQUILIBRIUM EQUILIBRIUM SYSTEMS SYSTEMS
Rate of Reaction Forward & reverse Forward and What is Energy and Only energy
(ROR) reaction almost equal reverse reactions exchanged with matter
0. are equal but surroundings?
don’t equal 0. Effects on Substances can Substances
No movement of Equal ROR of substances be added or lost contained within
Production of reactant/product reactants forming one area
Reactants/Products particles in forward or products and vice
reverse direction versa
Reversibility Irreversible Reversable
Diamond → Graphite Hydrogen to
Example Ammonia:
3H2 +N2 ⇌2NH3

REVERSABLE REACTIONS:

• In some reactions → as products form some react to become reactants again, when reaction is ‘complete’ there are both
reactants and products (dynamic equilibrium).
• Reactions where reactants form products and products form reactants are reversable reactions. Reactants forming
products is the forward reaction, and products forming reactants is the reverse reaction.

Reversable reactions are indicated by the

forward/backward arrow symbol, ⇌.
Module 5 – Year 12 HSC Chemistry

Syllabus Dot-point:
• Analyse examples of non-equilibrium systems in terms of the effect of entropy and enthalpy, for example:
combustion reactions, photosynthesis.

GIBBS FREE ENERGY:

∆G=∆H-T∆S
Where:

• ∆G is the change in Gibbs Free Energy (kJ/mol)

• ∆H is the change in enthalpy (kJ/mol)
• T is the temperature in Kelvin (K)
• ∆S is the change in entropy (kJ mol-1 K-1)
If ∆G is negative, reaction is spontaneous → reaction occurs until one of the reactants is used up, then reaction stops.
If ∆G is positive, reaction is not spontaneous → Reactants won’t react in the forward direction, but occurs spontaneously in the
reverse direction.

NON-EQUILIBRIUM SYSTEMS:

• Gibbs Free Energy is negative for one side of the reaction, and positive for the other side.
• Irreversible – will never reach equilibrium
Combustion:
- Exothermic (releases energy)
- Decreases in enthalpy, increases in entropy
- Spontaneous, reverse is non-spontaneous and non-equilibrium
reaction.
Photosynthesis:
- Endothermic (requires energy)
- Decreases in entropy, increases in enthalpy
- Non-spontaneous, reverse reaction is spontaneous and a non-
equilibrium reaction.

Syllabus Dot-point:
• Investigate the relationship between collision theory and reaction rate in order to analyse chemical equilibrium
reactions.

Collision Theory – Particles must collide with sufficient energy (to break bonds) and in the right orientation (to form bonds).

Activation Energy – Amount of energy required to break bonds of reactants.

• If reactant particles in a collision have insufficient

energy, products cannot be formed.
• If activation energy is low, more particles will have
enough energy to collide to break and reform bonds.
• For forward and reverse reaction – if activation
energy is high for either reaction, reaction is
unlikely proceed (only few particles will have
sufficient energy for a successful collision).
• Thus, activation energy for forward and reverse
reactions must be low so that a lot of the particles
have sufficient energy to collide.
Module 5 – Year 12 HSC Chemistry

Extra Notes: Graphing with Equilibrium

GRAPHING REACTION RATE VS TIME:

• Forward reaction is initially high, reverse reaction

is initially zero (no products produced to react
initially).
• Forward reaction rate will decrease quickly initially
but then more slowly (Concentration of reactants
decreasing), reverse reaction rate will increase
quickly initially but then more slowly
(Concentration of products increasing).
• Dynamic equilibrium is reached when the rate of
forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse
reaction. Concentrations and macroscopic
properties will remain constant.

GRAPHING CONCENTRATION VS TIME:

• Conc. of reactants is initially large however conc. of products

is initially zero (initially only reactants, no products have been
produced).
• Concentration of reactants decrease; concentration of products
increases.
• Both curves will plateau when the system reaches dynamic
equilibrium (concentrations are constant, but don’t have to be
equal value).

MODULE 5 – SECTION 2: Factors that Affect Equilibrium

Syllabus Dot-point:
• Investigate the effects of temperature, concentration, volume and/or pressure on a system at equilibrium and explain
how Le Chatelier’s principle can be used to predict such effects, for example: heating cobalt (II) chloride hydrate,
interaction between nitrogen dioxide and dinitrogen tetroxide, iron (III) thiocyanate and varying concentration of
ions.

➔ The conditions of a system determine the point at which equilibrium is established.

➔ If conditions are changed (temperature, volume etc.) then system won’t be in equilibrium anymore.
➔ Equilibrium will be re-established as forward or reverse reaction proceeds at faster rate.

LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE:

The principle states: If a system at equilibrium is subject to a change in conditions, then the system will behave in such a way so
as to partially counteract the imposed change.
Module 5 – Year 12 HSC Chemistry

FACTORS WHICH AFFECT EQUILIBRIUM:

Consider reaction: A + B ⇌ C + D + heat (exothermic)

TEMPERATURE:

• The effect of temperature relies on the reaction – whether it

is endothermic or exothermic.
• Increase in temperature: System will favour reaction that
absorbs energy (endothermic reaction will be favoured).
For the reaction, A and B will thus increase in
concentration and C and D will decrease in concentration
because they are being consumed more.
• Decrease in temperature: System will favour the
exothermic reaction in order to produce more heat energy
to increase temperature. A and B will decrease in
concentration to produce more heat energy (also meaning
that C and D will increase in concentration).

CONCENTRATION/PARTIAL PRESSURE (gases):

• Increase in concentration/partial pressure: When

concentration/pressure of A is increased, system works in
order to decrease this. Forward reaction will be favoured
(equilibrium shifting to the right). More collisions occur so
concentration/pressure of A and B decreases,
concentration/pressure of C and D increases.

• Decrease in concentration/partial pressure: When

concentration/pressure of A is decreased, system works in
order to increase this again. Equilibrium shifts to the left.
There will be a decrease of concentrations/pressures of C and
D and increase in concentrations/pressures of A and B.

VOLUME:

• Pressure is inversely proportional to volume.

• When volume is increased, concentration decreases because molecules
have more space to move around. This also results in a decrease of
pressure.
• When volume decreases concentration increases because molecules
have less space to move around. There is also an increase of pressure.
Module 5 – Year 12 HSC Chemistry

Syllabus Dot-point:
• Explain the overall observations about equilibrium in terms of the collision theory

COLLISION THEORY:

Collision Theory – Particles must collide with sufficient energy (to break bonds) and in the right orientation (to form bonds).

FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF REACTION (In terms of Collision Theory):

• CONCENTRATION/PRESSURE: Density of the molecules increases, increases collision frequency and thus ROR
(rate of reaction).
• SURFACE AREA: Increasing surface area of one reactant makes it exposed more to the other reactant, increases
collision frequency and thus ROR results in an increase.
• TEMPERATURE: Increases the kinetic energy in particles, meaning particles vibrate and move around more,
increasing particle collision frequency and ROR.
• CATALYSTS: Provides an alternative reaction pathway which lowers the activation energy needed. This allows more
reactant molecules to collide which is an increase in ROR.

Syllabus Dot-point:
• Examine how activation energy and heat of reaction affect the position of equilibrium

Activation Energy – Amount of energy required to break bonds of reactants.

Heat of Reaction – Change in enthalpy of a chemical reaction.

ENERGY PROFILE CURVES:

For a system to reach equilibrium it needs to be ensured that

when a reaction is in the forward direction (conc. of reactants
decreasing, conc. of products increasing), there is a sufficient
amount of energy for the product particles to react to reform
reactant particles (is able to proceed in reverse direction).

MODULE 5 – SECTION 3: Calculating Equilibrium Constant (Keq)

Syllabus Dot-point:
• Deduce the equilibrium expression (in terms of K eq) for homogeneous reactions occurring in solution

EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT:

• Numerical value based on ratio between products and reactants when system has reached equilibrium.
products
Q = reactants (reaction quotient) – used for random concentrations.
Module 5 – Year 12 HSC Chemistry

HOW TO USE FORMULA:

• For some reaction aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD,

[C]c [D]d
Keq = [A]a [B]b

Where; A and B are reactants, C and D are products, and a, b, c, and d, are the coefficients of reactants/products.

• Solids and liquids don’t vary in concentration. In a heterogenous reaction, solids and liquids are excluded.
• In a homogenous, solid and liquids are included.

Example - Equilibrium expression for 3H2 + N2 ⇌ 2NH3:

[C]c [D]d
Keq = [A]a [B]b

[NH3 ]2
Keq = [N 3
2 ][H2 ]

• If concentrations of chemicals are measured for reactions that haven’t reached equilibrium, symbol Q is used (reaction
quotient).

Syllabus Dot-point:
• Perform calculations to find the value of Keq and concentrations of substances within an equilibrium system, and use
these values to make predictions on the direction in which a reaction may proceed.

USING Q VALUES (at any given time – system in eq. or not):

Q < Keq: Less products and more reactants at equilibrium. Forward reaction is favoured.

Q > Keq: More products, less reactants at equilibrium. Reverse reaction is favoured.

Q = Keq: System in equilibrium.

USING Keq VALUES (at equilibrium):

Large value of Keq indicates reaction indicates concentration of products is more than reactants.

• Keq > 1, reaction goes towards completion, nearly all reactants become products (equilibrium shifts right)
• Keq < 1, reaction only occurs to an extent (equilibrium lies to left)
• Keq = 1, significant concentrations of products/reactants at equilibrium

EXTRA INFO ON CALCULATING EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT:

For some equation and Keq:

• If reaction is reversed – take the reciprocal of Keq (1/Keq)

• If overall reaction is multiplied by a number – raise Keq to the power of the number.
• If overall reaction is divided by a number – root Keq according to the number divided by (i.e. if reaction was halved take
square root, or if divided by 3 take cubed root).

WHAT IS NEEDED FOR CALCULATIONS?

• Equation for reaction

• Equilibrium expression
• Initial concentrations of all chemical species and eq. concentration of one of the chemical species OR equilibrium
concentration for all species.
Module 5 – Year 12 HSC Chemistry

ICE TABLES:
• Can be used to calculate equilibrium concentrations of all chemical species involved in a reaction
• Involves calculating:
o I – Initial concentration for each chemical species
o C – Change in concentration for each chemical species
o E – Equilibrium concentration for each chemical system.
• Initial conc. of all species must be known and the eq. conc. for one species.
• Let the change in equilibrium be some variable x (as demonstrated in example 2 below).

Example 1 – Without ice tables:

Calculate the equilibrium constant for the reaction:

CH3COOH (aq) ⇌ CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq)

Given that at equilibrium, [CH3COOH] = 0.92 mol/L, [CH3COO-] = 1.62 x 10-2, [H+] = 1.02 x 10-3 mol/L

Equilibrium expression:
[CH3 COO- ][H+ ]
Keq =
[CH3 COOH]
Substituting values:
(1.62 ×10-2 )(1.02 ×10-3 )
Keq =
0.92

= 1.8 x 10-5
Example 2 – With ice tables:
Phosgene gas, COCl2, decomposes to carbon monoxide and chlorine at elevated temperatures. 0.050 mole of phosgene was placed
in a 1.0L flask and heated to 400°C. At equilibrium it was found that the concentration of chlorine was 0.0060 mol/L.
Calculate Keq.

Equation:
COCl2 (g) ⇌ CO(g) + Cl2 (g)

Ice table:

COCl2 CO Cl2
Initial 0.050 mol/L (c = n/v) 0 0
Change -x x x
Equilibrium 0.050 mol/L + (- x) x 0.0060 mol/L

Cl2: 0 + x = 0.0060, therefore x = 0.0060.

Concentration of CO will be 0.0060 and concentration of COCl 2 will be 0.044 mol/L.

Equilibrium constant and calculation:

[CO][Cl2 ]
Keq =
[COCl2 ]
0.0060 × 0.0060
Keq =
0.044
= 8.2 x 10-4
Module 5 – Year 12 HSC Chemistry

Syllabus Dot-point:
• Qualitatively analyse the effect of temperature on the value of K eq

THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE VALUE OF THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT:

• Temperature is the ONLY factor which can change Keq

• For an exothermic reaction, an increase in temperature causes a decrease in the value of K.

o Qualitatively, increasing temperature of an exothermic reaction will try to reduce temperature by
favouring the endothermic. More reactants are produced which by K eq = products/reactants will decrease
K.
o Quantitatively,

e.g. Keq = 0.5/1 = 0.5

Q = 0.5/1.1 = 0.45

(Q is when temperature of exothermic reaction is increased, thus concentration of reactants goes from 1 mol/L to some arbitrary
concentration 1.1 mol/L and Q < K and therefore a decrease in Q)

• For an endothermic reaction, an increase in temperature causes an increase in the value of K (follows the same process as
above quantitatively)
o Qualitatively, increasing temperature of an endothermic reaction will try to reduce temperature by still
favouring endothermic reaction. This produces more products which by Keq = products/reactants will
increase K.
o Quantitatively,

e.g. Keq = 0.5/1 = 0.5

Q = 0.6/1 = 0.6

(Q is when temperature of endothermic reaction is increased, thus concentration of products goes from 0.5 mol/L to some
arbitrary concentration 0.6 mol/L and Q > K, therefore an increase in Q)

Syllabus Dot-point:
• Explore the use of Keq for different types of chemical reactions, including but not limited to:
– dissociation of ionic solutions
– dissociation of acids and bases

• The strength of an acid or base is related to the proportion of which it has reacted with water to produce ions.

STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS AND BASES:

• Strong acid – a reaction which fully ionizes.

• Weak acid – Doesn’t ionize fully when dissolved in water.

ACID AND BASE DISSOCIATION CONSTANT Ka AND Kb:

• For an acid the general equilibrium constant for a reaction is:

[H3 O+ ][A- ]
Ka =
[HA]

Where the chemical equilibrium equation is:

HA (aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + A-(aq)

Module 5 – Year 12 HSC Chemistry

• For a base the general chemical equilibrium constant for a reaction is:

[BH+ ][OH- ]
Kb =
[B]

Where the reaction is:

B(aq) + H2O (aq) ⇌ BH+(aq) + OH-(aq)

MODULE 5 – SECTION 4: Solution Equilibria

Syllabus Dot-point:
• Describe and analyse the processes involved in the dissolution of ionic compounds in water

PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS:

• Ions in an ionic compound, at the molecular level, are

arranged in a 3D lattice.
• The ions are held together by electrostatic forces
between positive and negative charged ions.

DISSOLUTION OF IONIC COMPOUNDS IN WATER:

• Ionic bonds are broken within lattice.

• Hydrogen bonds between water molecules are also
broken.
• Ion-dipole attractions form between ions and polar water molecules.
• Insoluble ionic compounds do not dissolve because energy required to separate ions from lattice is greater than energy
released when ions are hydrated (when water molecules are attracted to ions).

Syllabus Dot-point:
• investigate the use of solubility equilibria by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples when removing toxicity
from foods, for example:
– toxins in cycad fruit

• Aboriginals used a detoxifying process called leaching to detoxify fruits.

• Process involved cutting up cycad seeds to increase surface area, placing the food in a woven bag, and submerging them
in the creek.
• Surface area of the cycad seeds were increased to provide a greater area for toxins to be leached out.
• Cycad’s solubility is 56g per litre of water – hence why leaching was very effective.
• Toxins were always being leached out which means it never reached dynamic equilibrium.

Syllabus Dot-point:
• Derive equilibrium expressions for saturated solutions in terms of Ksp and calculate the solubility of an ionic
substance from its Ksp value

• Ksp is used to describe saturated solutions of ionic compounds of

relatively low solubility
• The molar solubility of a substance is the number of moles that
dissolve per litre of solution.

HOW TO DO KSP PROBLEMS:

• Write the chemical equation for the substance dissolving

• Write the Ksp expression (same process as Keq – don’t include
solids or pure liquids in expression)
• Use an ice table to determine equilibrium concentrations of the ions
• Substitute concentrations.

If molar solubility needs to be found and Ksp for dissolving compound is not
given, use chart to right to deduce Ksp.
Module 5 – Year 12 HSC Chemistry

KSP PROBLEMS – COMMON ION EFFECT:

• When comparing two compounds, if they have the same anion/cation then this is the common ion effect (adding a
common ion to a saturated solution decreases solubility of salt).

Example 1 – if solution is not saturated with a common ion:

Calculate the molar solubility for CaSO4 if it dissolves in pure water and it’s Ksp value is 4.93 x 10-5 at 25 degrees.

CaSO4 ⇌ Ca2+ +SO42-

Ksp =[Ca2+ ][SO42- ]

Ca2+ SO42-
Initial 0 0
Change x x
Eq. x x

Ksp =[x][x]

4.93 x 10-5 =[x][x]

4.93 x 10-5 = x2

x = 7. 02 x 10-3 mol/L, which is the molar solubility of CaSO4

Example 2 – Common ion effect

Calculate the molar solubility for CaSO4 if it dissolves in 0.100mol/L Na2SO4 and its Ksp value is 4.93 x 10-5 at 25 degrees.
CaSO4 ⇌ Ca2+ +SO42-

Ksp =[Ca2+ ][SO42- ]

Ca2+ SO42-
Initial 0 0.100 (from the Na2SO4)
Change x x
Eq. x 0.100 + x

Ksp = [x][0.100 + x]

In the 0.100 + x, the x is negligible since so little will dissolve into Na2SO4 if the solution is already saturated enough. This means
that 0.100 + x will approximately equal 0.100. Thus,

Ksp = [x][0.100]

4.93 x 10-5 = 0.100x

x = 4.93 x 10-4 mol/L

Syllabus Dot-point:
• Predict the formation of a precipitate given the standard reference values for Ksp

PREDICTING PRECIPITATES QUANTITATIVELY:

• If Q < K, the solution is unsaturated (more ionic compound can dissolve).

• If Q = K, the solution is saturated and has reached equilibrium.
• If Q > K, the solution is supersaturated and very little ionic substance can dissolve into solution. Most likely there will
be a precipitate.

Q in this case is the ion product (product of concentration of ions), and it describes concentrations which aren’t necessarily
equilibrium concentrations.
 YEAR 12 CHEMISTRY
MODULE 6 – ACID/BASE REACTIONS

Sections Covered:
Properties of Acids and Bases
Using Brønsted-Lowry Theory
Quantitative Analysis
MODULE 6 – SECTION 1: Properties of Acids and Bases

Syllabus Dot-point:
• Investigate the correct IUPAC nomenclature and properties of common inorganic acids and bases

NAMING INORGANIC ACIDS:

Other examples: Hydroiodic acid (HI), hydrofluoric acid (HF)

BINARY ACID: Result:
ACIDS:
• Always starts Hydro – (base name of non-metal + ic) acid
H + one other non-metal. i.e. HCl is Hydrochloric Acid
with Hydrogen.
(e.g. HCl)
• Includes one or
more non-metals.
Another example: Sulfuric Acid
If polyatomic ion present within
(H2SO4)
oxyacid ends with:
(Base name of oxyanion + ic) acid
OXYACIDS:
-ate i.e. HNO3 becomes Nitric acid
Contains oxygen.
(e.g. HNO3 – hydrogen and -ite
nitrate) (Base name of oxyanion + ous) acid
i.e. HNO2 becomes Nitrous acid

Another example: Carbonous acid

(H2CO2)
NAMING INORGANIC BASES:

• Bases contain either hydroxide ions (OH-) or oxide ions (O2-) or which in solution produces hydroxide ions.
• Common bases include LiOH (lithium hydroxide), or MgO (Magnesium oxide)

WEAK/STRONG ACIDS AND BASES:

• Strong acids and bases – complete dissociation in water, an acid which has completely ionised.
• Weak acids and bases – incomplete dissociation in water, an acid which has incompletely ionised.

Syllabus Dot-point:
• predict the products of acid reactions and write balanced equations to represent:
– acids and bases
– acids and carbonates
– acids and metals

BACKGROUND INFO:
ACID/BASE REACTIONS:

• When an acid and a base is reacted together, usually the reaction goes by:

Acid + Base → Salt + Water

For example, the reaction between HCl and NaOH is as follows:

HCl(aq)+ NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

These reactions can also be caused neutralisation reactions if these reactions involve hydrogen reacting with hydroxide ions to
produce water.

• Acids could be thought of as proton donators:

In this example the HCl is donating a proton to the water, in order to form hydronium H 3O+.

• Bases could be thought of as proton acceptors:

In this example the NH3 is accepting the proton from the water, creating the products NH 4+, and OH- (since the water loses a
hydrogen).

• Some oxides are able to act as an acid and base, that is they are amphoteric. Example as below.

Acidic oxides dissolve and react with strong, basic solutions, whereas Basic oxides dissolve and react with strong, acidic solutions.

ACID/CARBONATE REACTIONS:

In general, the reaction when an acid is reacted with a carbonate:

Acid + Metal Carbonate → Salt + Carbon Dioxide + Water

Some examples:

ACID/METAL REACTIONS:
• In general, the reaction when an acid and a metal react is:

Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen

e.g. 2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

 Syllabus Dot-point:
• Investigate applications of neutralisation reactions in everyday life and industrial processes

THE STOMACH AND NEUTRALISATION REACTIONS:

• HCl is one of the substances found in gastric juices secreted by the lining of the stomach – needed by enzyme Pepsin to
catalyse digestion of proteins in food digested.
• When the stomach produces too much acid, the stomach develops a symptom known as “heartburn”.

• Antacids are used to neutralise the acid which causes heartburn – almost all antacids act on excess stomach acid by
neutralising it with weak bases (hydroxides, carbonates, etc.).

NEUTRALISATION REACTIONS IN THE INDUSTRY:

• The Solvay Process – industrial process for production of sodium carbonate.

• The raw materials used are CaCO3 which is obtained from limestone quarries and salt.

• Usually difficult to react CaCO3 with NaCl without any intermediates – this is what Solvay process does.
 Syllabus Dot-point:
• Conduct a practical investigation to measure the enthalpy of neutralisation

THEORY AND IMPORTANT FORMULAE:

• The change in enthalpy of neutralisation can be measured using a calorimeter (reaction vessel surrounded by an insulated
container such as a Styrofoam cup with a thermometer to measure heat).
• Any heat released in the cup changes temperature of reaction vessel and water.
• If the temperature change and the heat capacity is known, the quantity of heat released can be calculated through:
q
∆H = -
n
Where ∆H is the change in enthalpy (kJ/mol), n is the moles of the solute (mol) and q is the heat energy transferred (kJ).

Within this formula:

q = mc∆T

• m is the total mass of the solution (the solute + the solvent in g)

• c is the specific heat capacity (J g-1 C° -1) – change to kJ by dividing by 1000 unless specified
• T is the change in temperature of the solution (Tfinal – Tinitial in C°)

Doesn’t matter if c or T are in units of Kelvin (K) as change in temperature will still remain the same.

Syllabus Dot-point:
• Explore the changes in definitions and models of an acid and a base over time to explain the limitations of each
model, including but not limited to:
– Arrhenius’ theory
– Brønsted–Lowry theory

ARRHENIUS’ THEORY:

Info: Found that when acid solutions were electrolysed hydrogen gas was produced at the cathode, indicating H+ ions were
reduced to H2. This led to conclusion that acids dissociate in water to produce hydrogen ions.
Good Points: Limitations:
• Explains most properties of acids/bases which are • Only applies to substances which produce H+ or OH-
observed and used today. ions.
• Explained neutralisation as a reaction between • Reactions in non-aqueous solutions of acids and
Hydroxide and Hydrogen ions to produce water. bases were not explained properly.
• Does not explain the extent of ionisation of strong
and weak electrolytes in solution.

BR∅NSTED-LOWRY THEORY:

Info: Lowry and Bronsted independently proposed a theory - acids are proton donators and bases are proton acceptors.
Substances cannot act as acids without another one acting as a base, and acid-base behaviour should be thought of as proton
exchange.
Good Points: Limitations:
• Explains basic character of substances which don’t • Cannot explain reactions between acid and basic
necessarily have to contain OH- (opposite of oxides which take place in absence of solvent.
Arrhenius’ theory in a way…) • Some substances behave as acids but do not have
• Not limited to molecules – covers ionic species to protons to donate/lose.
act as acids/bases
• Explains acid base reactions not limited to an
aqueous environment (opposite of Arrhenius
theory).
MODULE 6 – SECTION 2: Using Br∅nsted-Lowry Theory

Syllabus Dot-point:
• Calculate pH, pOH, hydrogen ion concentration ([H+]) and hydroxide ion concentration ([OH–]) for a range of
solutions.

THE PH SCALE:

• pH stands for ‘Hydrogen power’ as the pH scale is based on hydrogen ion concentrations in solutions. Since hydrogen
ions attach to water molecules, can also be based on the hydronium ions H 3O+.
• pH scale goes from 0-14, where anything from 0-7 (not inclusive) is acidic. A pH of 7 is neutral. A pH above 7 indicates
a basic substance.

CALCULATING PH, pOH, [H+], [OH-]:

Calculating pH and H+ concentration:

• pH can be calculated by the formula:

pH = - log10 [H+ ]

Where [H+ ] is the hydrogen ion concentration of the solution.

Alternatively, [H+] can be rearranged for:

-pH= log10 [H+ ]

By using log to exponential form (logab = x → ax = b):

[H+] = 10-pH

Calculating pOH and OH- concentration:

• Similarly, to pH, pOH can be calculated by:

pOH = - log10 [OH- ]

Alternatively, the [OH-] can be rearranged for similarly to the [H+].

• pOH can also be calculated by:

pOH = 14 – pH

Examples:

What is the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution with the pH of 3.49?

10-3.49 = 3.24 x 10-4 mol/L

SELF-IONISATION OF WATER:

• When two molecules of water collide and exchange a proton, this is known as the self-ionisation of water.

Either molecule is acting as an acid or a base to exchange protons. The equilibrium constant for the self-ionisation of water
can be found by multiplying the concentrations of OH - and H3O+ (no liquids included).

Kw = [OH-][H3O+] = 1.0 x 10-14 (only 1.0 x 10-7 mol/L of each ion exist in water)
 • This constant can also be used to calculate the concentrations of the ions in water:

Syllabus Dot-point:
• Write ionic equations to represent the dissociation of acids and bases in water, conjugate acid/base pairs in solution
and amphiprotic nature of some salts, for example:
– sodium hydrogen carbonate
– potassium dihydrogen phosphate

CONJUGATE ACID/BASE PAIRS:

• For an acid-base reaction,

HA + B → HB+ + A-

The acid produces a base A- when it donates a proton and the base produces an acid HB + when it gains a proton.

These are known as conjugate pairs, and they differ by a proton.

Side note: Water is amphiprotic meaning that it acts as both an acid and a base. The reaction of water and water:

H2O + H2O → OH- + H3O+

is an example where water acts as both an acid and a base. One of the water molecules donates a proton to the other, meaning this
is a Bronsted acid. The other water molecule accepts this proton as a Bronsted base. These form OH- (Conjugate Base) and H3O+
(Conjugate Acid).

• The particle without the present of the proton is the conjugate base (OH-)
• The particle which has the proton present is the conjugate acid (H3O+)

EQUATIONS REPRESENTING ANPHIPROTIC NATURE OF SALTS:

Example: Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate

• The reaction between sodium hydrogen carbonate (if it acts as a Bronsted acid) and water is given by:

NaHCO3(s) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + CO32-(aq) + Na+(aq)

Which means the sodium hydrogen carbonate donated a proton to the H 2O to form hydronium.

• The reaction between sodium hydrogen carbonate (if it acts as a Bronsted base) and water is given by:

NaHCO3(s) + H2O(l) → 2H+ + OH- + CO32- + Na+

Which means the water donated a proton to the sodium hydrogen carbonate to form OH -.
DISSOCIATION OF STRONG/WEAK ACIDS AND BASES IN WATER:

STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS:

HCl is a strong acid

CH3COOH is a weak acid

STRONG AND WEAK BASES:

NaOH is a strong base

NaF is a weak base

Syllabus Dot-point:
• Construct models and/or animations to communicate the differences between strong, weak, concentrated and dilute
acids and bases
STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS AND BASES:

• The difference between strong and weak acids

is to what extent they dissociate
• Strong acids fully dissociating into its
constituent ions when placed in water
• Weak acids don’t fully dissociate into its ions
after placed in water.
 • Strong bases have a 100% degree of ionisation
• Weak bases do not fully dissociate into its ions.

CONCENTRATED AND DILUTE ACIDS AND BASES:

• The higher number of base molecules dissolved in water, the more concentrated it is.
• For concentrated and dilute acids and bases, the more moles of acid/base molecules dissolved in the same volume of
solvent means the greater the concentration.
• If molarity is known of a particular acid or base in solution is known, the higher the molarity the more concentrated the
acid or base is.

Syllabus Dot-point:
• Calculate the pH of the resultant solution when solutions of acids and/or bases are diluted or mixed.

Example:

20.0mL of a 1.00mol L-1 LiOH solution is added to 30mL of a 0.500mol L- HNO3 solution. What is the pH of the final solution?

Equation: LiOH + HNO3 → LiNO3 + H2O

n(LiOH) = cV = (0.02L) (1.00mol L-1) = 0.02mol

n(HNO3) = cV = (0.03L) (0.500mol L-1) = 0.015mol

HNO3 is limiting and LiOH is in excess (ratio 1:1 – solutions don’t mix in equal mole ratios).

Therefore, the total number of moles of LiOH when both of these solutions are mixed is 0.02mol – 0.015mol = 0.005mol.
The volume in total when these solutions are mixed is 0.02L + 0.03L = 0.05L
The concentration of LiOH will be c(LiOH) = n/v = 0.005/0.05 = 0.1mol L-1

Lastly, the pOH of LiOH is -log [OH-] = -log [0.1] = 1.

And since pH = 14 – pOH, pH = 14 – 1 = 13

The pH of the resultant solution is 13.

MODULE 6 – SECTION 3: Quantitative Analysis

Syllabus Dot-point:
• Conduct practical investigations to analyse the concentration of an unknown acid or base by titration

THEORY:

A titration is a type of volumetric analysis to determine the unknown concentration of an acid or base, which can be done by
titrating it against a base or acid with a known concentration.

There is also a use of indicators and pH in titrations, which are listed:

• The choice of a suitable indicator for acid-base titrations depends on the strength of the acids and bases involved. The pH
of the resulting salt determines the indicator to be used.

• On a graph, the equivalence point is the point where equal number of moles of both the acid and the base are equal.
• The end point is where the indicator changes colour.
 Syllabus Dot-point:
• investigate titration curves and conductivity graphs to analyse data to indicate characteristic reaction profiles, for
example:
– strong acid/strong base
– strong acid/weak base
– weak acid/strong base

TITRATION CURVES:
CONDUCTIVITY GRAPHS:

STRONG ACID/BASE:

• Before a base is added, there is high conductivity because of the mobility

of the H+ ions.
• This is decreased as the base is added because H+ react with OH- to form
undissociated water – continues until equivalence point.
• At equivalence point – solution only contains salt
• After equivalence point – more base is being added so the conductivity
increases due to the mobility of the OH- ions, but wouldn't increase as
much as H+ is more mobile in solution.

WEAK ACID/STRONG BASE:

• Conductance originally starts lower than strong acids due to lack of

ionization of the acid.
• Will slowly decrease as the hydroxides from the base react with any
available hydrogen ions to form water.
• There is then an increase after the equivalence point (more base added,
thus more OH-) as when more base is added it neutralises any
undissociated acid molecules which forms a basic salt. Hence the
conductivity increases.
• The equivalence point happens due to the hydrolysis (water being added
to a substance) of salt.

STRONG ACID/WEAK BASE:

• Conductance is originally high due to mobility of H + ions in acid.

• Decrease in conductivity due to reaction of H+ and the small amount of OH-
forming water.
• After the equivalence point, the graph levels off due to the fact that weak
bases don't really dissociate.

Syllabus Dot-point:
• Calculate and apply the dissociation constant (Ka) and pKa (pKa = -log10 (Ka)) to determine the difference between
strong and weak acids.

Ka AND pKa:

• Ka is the equilibrium constant for the dissociation of an acid at a specific temperature. For a reaction:

HA (aq) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + A- (aq)

The equilibrium constant for this reaction is:

[H3 O+ ][A- ]
Ka =
[HA]

• The pKa can be used to predict whether a species will donate or accept protons at a specific pH value, and can also
describe the degree of ionisation or strength of an acid or base.

The pKa can be calculated by:

pKa = -log10(Ka)

A smaller pKa will correspond to an acid of a strong strength.

 Syllabus Dot-point:
• Explore acid/base analysis techniques that are applied:
– in industries
– by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples
– using digital probes and instruments

IN THE INDUSTRY:

• There are various industrial applications of acid-base reactions and analysis techniques:
- Food preservation
- Water treatment
- Production/uses of polymers
- Acids in drinks
- Cleaning products
- Pharmaceuticals etc.

FOOD PRESERVATION:

• Acids are used as preservatives – can kill microorganisms which cause food poisoning
• E.g. vinegar used as a preservative. The main component
of vinegar is ethanoic acid which is used as a preservative
for foods such as tomatoes and beetroots.
• Other chemicals: Sulfur dioxide, sulfurous acid, acidic
sulfite salts – preserves meat products like devon and
bologna.
• Citric acid is used as an antioxidant in canned foods.
• Additives (substances added in to preserve) in food are numbered and many are acidic and used as food preservatives.
• Acid base analysis techniques are used to monitor the pH in the food industry, as well as to measure the proportion of
chemicals in solution.

ABORIGINALS AND TORRES STRAIT ISLANDERS:

• Native Australian fruits have been parts of the diets of Indigenous Australians for thousands of years – used for nutrition
and medicinal value.
• The Davidson plum and the Quandong are some native fruits which possess high quantities of acids, including citric acid
and ascorbic acid (Vitamin C). A Davidson plum has 100 times the amount of Vitamin C than an orange.
• Quandongs are valued for their medicinal use for treatment of skin conditions and laxatives.
• Acidic content of these fruits can be analysed using titration techniques, and some native fruits have already been found
to contain compounds which have antioxidant properties. This has been done through liquid chromatography and mass
spectroscopy.

DIGITAL PROBES AND INSTRUMENTS:

AUTOMATED TITRATORS:

• A predetermined amount of reactant is added and a machine will add the other reactant and find the endpoint by
measuring the products.
• A way to titrate many samples at one time with increased accuracy due to a calibrated computer and not limited by the
human eye.

DIGITAL PROBES:

• Uses sensitive resistors to measure pH.

• Data can be recorded automatically and titration curves can be plotted in real time.
• Equivalence point of titration curves can also be accurately pinpointed, which can be used to determine the moles and
volume of acid required to neutralise the strong base of known concentration.
 Syllabus Dot-point:
• conduct a chemical analysis of a common household substance for its acidity or basicity, for example:
– soft drink
– wine
– juice
– medicine
SOFT DRINKS:

• Carbon dioxide inside soft drinks reacts with water, forming carbonic acid (this acid is very acidic, hence soft drinks are
acidic), which gives soft drinks their sharpness. Flavours are then added into the water.
• The higher the carbonic acid concentration the sharper the soft drink will taste.
• For carbonation to occur (dissolving CO2 in H2O) a low temperature and high pressure must be present for it to be
dissolved and for the solubility of the gas to increase.

JUICES:

• Orange juice has citric acid and apple juice has malic acid, both which give the sharpness of the juice.
• These are Bronsted-Lowry acids as they can donate protons.

Syllabus Dot-point:
• Describe the importance of buffers in natural systems

BUFFERS:

• Acids and bases will change the pH of solution when added to water, however there are some solutions (buffer solutions)
which will resist such change of pH.
• Buffers are made by adding weak acids/bases and equal amounts of its conjugate.

BUFFER SYSTEMS:

• Important in natural aquatic systems such as lakes, rivers, oceans. Oceans maintain a pH of 8.5 as a result of complex
buffering systems with hydrogen carbonate ions.

BLOOD BUFFER:

• Human blood has a pH of around 7.4 – condition called acidosis arises when blood falls below a pH of 7.35. Below 7 a
person will enter into a coma, and if pH drops below 6.8 death is a possibility.
• Similarly, if the pH rises above 7.45 alkalosis occurs and can be life threatening if it reaches 7.8.
• Buffers in blood maintain this pH around 7.35-7.45, the main one is a carbonic acid/hydrogen carbonate ion buffer
system.
• If hydroxide ions are added to blood, they are neutralised by carbonic acid part of buffer. However, if acid is added it is
neutralised by the ions. The result is that the pH is maintained around 7.4.