CONSTRUCTION

TECHNOLOGY II

BY
ESTHER NJOKI

LESSON SEVEN
WINDOWS

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 WINDOWS
 Windows in any building structure not only
provide a means for illuminating the interior but
also provide a decorative touch to the
structure.
 A window must be aesthetically acceptable in
the context of building design and the
surrounding environment.

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Functional requirements
 Windows should be selected or designed to:
a) Resist wind loadings
b) Be easy to clean
c) Provide for safety and security
d) Provide privacy
e) Distribution and control of daylight
f) Desired vision of outdoors
g) Ventilation control
h) Heat loss
i) Weather resistance

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 Selection criteria
 Selection of suitable window in a particular
place should be dependent of following factors.
1. Location of room
2. Size of room
3. Direction of wind
4. Climatic conditions
5. Utility of room
6. Architectural point of view

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Selection criteria – cont’d
 Most building codes require that glass areas
be equal to at least 10% of the floor area of
each room.
 It is good practice to provide glass areas in
excess of 20% and to locate the windows as
high in the wall as possible to lengthen the
depth of light penetration.

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 Types of windows
 There are many types of windows available based
on their positions, materials and functioning.
 Windows are classified as follows:
 Fixed windows, Sliding windows, Pivoted windows,
Double hung windows, Louvered windows,
Casement windows, Metal windows, Sash windows,
Corner windows, Bay windows, Dormer windows,
Clerestory windows, Lantern windows, Gable
windows, and Skylights

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 Fixed windows
 Fixed windows are fixed to the wall without any
closing or opening operation.
 In general, they are provided to transmit the light
into the room.
 Fully glazed shutters are fixed to the window
frame.
 The shutters provided are generally weather proof.

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Fixed windows – cont’d

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 Sliding Windows
 Window shutters are movable in the frame.
 The movement may be horizontal or vertical based
on our requirement.
 The movement of shutters is done by the provision
of roller bearings.

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 Horizontally Sliding Sash Windows
 Can be constructed in timber, metal, plastic or
combinations of these materials with single or
double glazing.
 A wide range of arrangements are available with
two or more sliding sashes which can have a vent
light incorporated into the outer sliding sash.

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Horizontally Sliding Sash Windows –
cont’d

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 Horizontally Sliding Sash Windows –
cont’d

Timber sliding window Aluminium sliding window

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Vertically Sliding Sash Windows
 Can be constructed in timber, metal, plastic or
combinations of these materials with single or
double glazing.
 They are of two types:

a) The weight balanced type

b) The spring balanced type

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Vertically Sliding Sash Windows – cont’d

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16
 Pivoted Windows
 Pivots are provided to window frames.
 A pivot is a shaft which helps to oscillate the
shutter.
 No rebates are required for the frame.
 The swinging may either horizontal or vertical
based on the position of pivots.

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 Pivot Windows – cont’d
 Are available in timber, metal, plastic or in
combinations of these materials.
 They can be constructed with centre jamb pivots
enabling the sash to pivot or rotate in the horizontal
plane or alternatively the pivots can be fixed in the
head and sill of the frame so that the sash rotates in
the vertical plane.

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Pivot Windows – cont’d

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 Pivot Windows – cont’d

Horizontal pivot window

Vertical pivot window

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 Double Hung Windows
 Double hung windows consist of pair of shutters
attached to one frame.
 The shutters are arranged one above the other.
 These two shutters can slide vertically within the
frame.
 The windows can open on top or at the bottom to
any required level.
 To operate the double hung windows, a chain or
cord consisting metal weights is metal provided
which is connected over pulleys.
 By pulling the weights of cord the shutters can
move vertically.
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Double Hung Windows – cont’d

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 Louvered Windows
 Louvered windows also known as jalousie windows
are similar to louvered doors which are provided
for the ventilation without any outside vision or
may comprise of clear panes.
 The louvers may be made of wood, glass or metal
 Recommended angle of inclination of louvers is
about 45 degrees.
 The sloping of louvers is downward to the outside
to run-off the rain water.
 They may be opened and closed with a metal
lever, pulleys, or through motorized operators
 Generally, they are provided for bathrooms,
toilets and privacy places etc. 23
Louvered Windows – cont’d

Glass louvered windows

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Louvered Windows – cont’d

Aluminium louvered Timber louvered

windows windows

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 Casement Windows
 A casement is a window that is attached to its
frame by one or more hinges
 They are used singly or in pairs within a
common frame, in which case they are hinged
on the outside.
 Casement windows are often held open using a
casement stay.

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Casement Windows – cont’d
 Casement windows are widely used
 The shutters are attached to frame and these can
be opened and closed like door shutters.
 Rebates are provided to the frame to receive the
shutters.
 The panels of shutters may be single or multiple.
 Sometimes wired mesh is provided to stop insects
from entering.

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Casement Windows – cont’d

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Casement Windows – cont’d

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Casement Windows – cont’d

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Casement Windows – cont’d

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 Metal Windows
 These can be obtained in steel or in aluminium
alloy
 Steel windows are cheaper in initial cost than
aluminium alloy but have higher maintenance
costs over their anticipated life.
 Some other metals like aluminum, bronze,
stainless steel etc. also used to make windows.
 But they are costly compared to mild steel
windows.
 For normal casement windows also, metal shutters
are provided to give strong support to the panels.

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 Metal Windows – cont’d
 The life of steel windows is dependent on proper
shop finish, field painting, and maintenance.
 Steel windows must be protected against corrosion
 Metal windows can be obtained fitted into timber
sub-frames

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Metal Windows – cont’d

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Metal Windows – cont’d

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 Steel windows
 These are made from hot-rolled structural-grade
new billet steel.
 Double-hung windows are made from cold-formed
new billet strip steel.
 Manufacturers conform to the specifications of the
respective codes which have standardized types,
sizes, thickness of material, depth of sections,
construction, and accessories.

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Steel windows – cont’d

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Steel windows – cont’d

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 Aluminium windows
 Aluminium window manufacturers offer the same
window types that are available in steel
 They are classified as residential, commercial,
and monumental.
 Aluminum windows should be protected for
shipment and installation with a coating of clear
methacrylate lacquer or similar material able to
withstand the action of lime mortar.

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Aluminium windows

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 Wood windows
 Used for most types of construction especially
residential work.
 The most important factor affecting wood windows
is weather exposure.
 They require proper maintenance for long life and
satisfactory service.
 Wooden sash and frames have lower thermal
conductivity than metal.
 The kinds of wood commonly used should be
resistant to shrinking and warping for the exposed
parts of windows

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Wood windows – cont’d

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 Corner Windows
 Corner windows are provided at the corners of
room.
 That means corner windows has two faces in
perpendicular directions.
 By providing this type of windows, light or air can
be entered into room in two different directions.
 To provide this type of window special lintel is
provided in the wall.
 Corner windows will give aesthetic appearance to
the building.

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Corner Windows – cont’d

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Corner Windows – cont’d

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Corner Windows – cont’d

Plan view of corner windows with and without

corner frame

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 Bay Windows
 Bay windows are projected windows form wall
which are provided to increase the area of
opening, which enables more ventilation and light
form outside.
 The projection of bay windows are of different
shapes.
 It may be triangular or rectangular or polygonal
etc.
 They give beautiful appearance to the structure.

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 Bay Windows – cont’d
 These can be defined as any window with
sidelights which projects in front of the
external wall and is supported by a sill height
wall.
 Bay windows not supported by a sill height
wall are called oriel windows.
 They can be of any window type, constructed
from any of the usual window materials
 Are available in three plan formats, namely
square, splay and circular or segmental.

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Bay Windows – cont’d

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 Bay Windows – cont’d

Square bay window

Square oriel bay window

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Bay Windows – cont’d

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 Bay Windows – cont’d

Splay bay window

Oriel splay bay window

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 Bay Windows – cont’d

Circular bay window

Oriel circular bay window

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Bay Windows – cont’d

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 Dormer Windows
 Dormer windows are provided for sloped roofs.
 These are projected from the sloping surface of
the roof
 They provide ventilation as well as lighting to the
room.
 They also enhance aesthetic appearance of the
room and house.

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Dormer Windows – cont’d

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Dormer Windows – cont’d

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Dormer Windows – cont’d

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 Clerestory Windows
 If the rooms in a building are of different ceiling
heights, clerestory windows are provided for the
room which has greater ceiling height than the
other rooms.
 These also enhance the beauty of building.

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Clerestory Windows – cont’d

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Clerestory Windows – cont’d

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 Lantern Windows
 Lantern windows are provided for over the flat
roofs.
 The main purpose of this window is to provide the
more light and air circulation to the interior
rooms.
 Generally, they are projected from the roof
surface

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Lantern Windows – cont’d

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Lantern Windows – cont’d

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 Gable Windows
 Gable windows are provided for sloped roof
buildings.
 These windows are provided at the gable end of
sloped roof so; they are called gable windows.
 They also improve the appearance of building.

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 Skylights
 Skylights or generally provided on the top of
sloped roofs.
 To admit light into the rooms, sky lights are
provided.
 It is provided parallel to the sloping surface.
 Sky lights can be opened when we required.
 Lead gutters are arranged to frame to make it as
waterproof.

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Skylights – cont’d

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Conventional window types

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Conventional window types –cont’d

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Conventional window types –cont’d

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Casement window ironmongery
 A casement is a window that is attached to its
frame by one or more hinges at the side.
 They are used singly or in pairs within a
common frame, in which case they are hinged
on the outside.
 Casement windows are often held open using a
casement stay.
 Casement window fasteners help ensure closed
windows stay secure

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 Casement window ironmongery – cont’d

Two pin casement window stay Two pin monkey tail casement window
- Polished brass stay - Antique black iron

Two pin casement window stay Two pin casement window stay
- Antique black iron – Polished
72 chrome
Casement window ironmongery – cont’d

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Casement window ironmongery – cont’d

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Casement window ironmongery – cont’d

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Casement window ironmongery

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 Casement window ironmongery – cont’d

Black Casement Fastener Hook Casement Fastener Satin Chrome

& Mortice Plates

Non-Locking Fastener Polished Locking Fastener Polished

Chrome Chrome
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Casement window ironmongery – cont’d

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 Glass and glazing
 Glass material is produced by fusing together soda,
lime and silica with other minor ingredients such as
magnesia and alumina.
 There are various types of glass used in
construction:
 Sheet Glass, Float Glass, Laminated Glass,
Shatterproof Glass, Energy-efficient Glass, Extra-
clean / Self-cleaning Glass, Chromatic Glass,
Patterned Glass, Tinted Glass, Toughened Glass,
Wired Glass, Glass Blocks, Glass Wool, Insulated
Glazed Units, Mirrors

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 Sheet Glass
 Sheet glass is manufactured by having molten glass
pass through rollers to produce a nearly flat finish.
However, the action of the rollers does leave the
resulting sheets with some degree of distortion.

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 Float Glass
 Made from sodium silicate and calcium silicate,
float glass is also known as soda-lime glass. The
“float” name refers to the method used to
produce it, where the molten glass is floated onto
a bed of molten tin. This gives us a flat, clear,
distortion-free glass.

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 Laminated glass
 As the name suggests, laminated glass consists of
layers of glass bonded by a transparent, flexible
material.
 Laminated glass is used for UV and soundproof,
which explains its use in the construction of
bridges and aquariums.
 It’s the best choice for making glass canopies as it
can reduce harmful rays.

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Laminated glass – cont’d

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 Shatterproof Glass
 This is a type of glass that’s resistant to
shattering.
 In other words, it doesn’t break into sharp pieces
in the event of destruction.
 Manufacturing shatterproof glass involves the
addition of a plastic polyvinyl butyral resin to
prevent it from forming sharp pieces. It’s
commonly used in windows, floors, and skylights.

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Shatterproof Glass – cont’d

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 Tempered glass
 Toughened glass, also called safety or tempered
glass, is used extensively throughout the industry
for its ability to resist breaking.
 If it does break, it does so into many small ‘safer’
pieces as opposed to large shards (like float glass).
 Toughened glass is typically used in home interiors
such as kitchen splashbacks (for its heat
resistance), and shower screens, glass balustrade
and swimming pool fencing.
 It can also be used in laminated panels for extra
safety precautions.

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Tempered glass – cont’d

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 Patterned Glass
 Patterned glass is flat glass that’s been rolled onto one
side during production. It’s available in many coloured
tints and patterns, each with a distortion number from 1
to 5 (1 is very little distortion and 5 is a high degree of
diffusion).
 Patterned glass is used for decoration purposes, with or
without added privacy.

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 Wired Glass
 Wired glass has a wire mesh in the middle of its
glass structure.
 The purpose of the wire is to hold the glass
together in the event of cracking or breaking,
however, it doesn’t stop the glass from forming
sharp pieces when broken.
 Available as clear or obscured, wired glass is
commonly used in more industrial areas or
structures such as garages.
 Generally used where a degree of security and fire
resistance is required.

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Wired Glass – cont’d

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 Glass Blocks
 Otherwise called glass bricks, glass blocks are
made from two halves pressed and annealed during
the melting process of glass.
 The applications for glass blocks include walls and
skylights, providing a pleasant aesthetic
appearance when light passes through.

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 Tinted Glass
 Tinted glass is simply coloured glass.
 A certain type of ion is added to the normal glass
mix to produce coloured glass, where the colour
doesn’t affect other properties of the glass.
 For example, iron oxide gives green and sulphur
gives blue.

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 Chromatic Glass
 Used in ICUs and meeting rooms, chromatic glass
can control the transparent efficiency to protect
the interior from daylight.
 This type of glass may be electrochromic (has
electric lamination), thermos-chromatic (has heat-
sensitive lamination), or photochromic (has light-
sensitive lamination).

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 Self-cleaning Glass
 Extra-clean or self-cleaning glass is both
photocatalytic and hydrophobic.
 These two unique properties make it stain-proof,
resulting in attractive appearance and easy
maintenance.
Normal glass Self-cleaning glass

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 Energy-efficient Glass
 This type of glass is produced by glazing float glass
with a special thin coating on one side.
 This coating allows solar energy to pass through in
one direction while minimizing the transfer of
thermal energy in the other direction.

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 Choice of Glass
 The main factors to be considered are:
a) Resistance to wind loadings
b) Clear vision required
c) Privacy
d) Security
e) Fire resistance
f) Aesthetics

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 Double Glazing
 This is where two layers of glass are used instead
of the traditional single layer.
 Double glazing can be used to reduce the rate of
heat loss through windows and glazed doors or it
can be employed to reduce the sound transmission
through windows.
 In the context of thermal insulation this is achieved
by having a small air or argon gas-filled space
within the range of 6 to 20 mm between the two
layers of glass.
 The sealed double glazing unit will also prevent
internal misting by condensation.
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 Double Glazing – cont’d
 All opening sashes in a double glazing system
should be fitted with adequate weather seals to
reduce the rate of heat loss through the opening
clearance gap.

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 Glazing
 The act of fixing glass into a frame or surround is
known as glazing.
 In domestic work this is usually achieved by
locating the glass in a rebate and securing it with
putty or beading

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 Glazing with putty
 Window putty is a blend of natural oils, oxides and
a limestone based powder.
 These are blended together very carefully to give a
slightly oily, malleable product with a pleasant low
natural odour.
 White putty does not contain any oxides and is
suitable for any application that will be painted
over.
 Coloured oxides can be mixed with white putty to
achieve a desired colour.
 Raw linseed oil must also be added to keep the
putty malleable.
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 Glazing with putty – cont’d
 Never add paraffin to the putty to speed up the
drying time as this will cause it to crack over time.
 Safety always comes first when working with glass.
 Make sure you have good quality work gloves and
eye protection
 During glazing, the following steps are followed:

1. Assemble your tools - putty knife, putty for a

wood or steel frame, linseed oil and mineral
turpentine. About 500g of putty will glaze
approximately 1m of frame

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 Glazing with putty – cont’d
2. Prepare the frame
 For wooden windows, apply a coat of raw linseed
oil to the frame.
 This will prevent the oil in the putty from being
pulled into the wood, causing it to dry out too
quickly and crack.
 For steel frames, treat any exposed metal with a
suitable metal primer.
 For new windows, make sure that all traces of
cement and dust are removed from the frame.

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Glazing with putty – cont’d
3. Prepare the putty
 Work the putty by hand to make it smooth.
 Add a little linseed oil to soften it

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 Glazing with putty – cont’d
4. Apply putty to the window
 Apply a thin bead (like a
rope) of putty to the window
recess – use your thumbs, it
makes it easier. Shape and
smooth with a putty knife.
 If the putty is a little sticky,
dip the knife in turpentine.

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 Glazing with putty – cont’d

5. Install the glass

 Press the glass pane firmly
but gently into the putty.
 Always press along the sides
into the putty, never in the
centre of the glass.

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Glazing with putty – cont’d
6. Apply outside putty
 Apply more putty to the
outside of the glass.

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 Glazing with putty – cont’d
 Use a putty knife to
shape the 45̊ angle at the
corners of the
windowpane so that the
putty slopes from the
glass down to the frame.

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 Glazing with putty – cont’d
7. Drying and painting
 Putty takes between seven to 14 days to dry.
 Leave it to dry completely before painting.
 Clean the window with a suitable cleaning solvent.
 Do not leave the putty unpainted for longer than
14 days.

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Glazing – cont’d

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Glazing – cont’d

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