Chapter - One
Chapter - One
Chapter - One
INTRODUCTION TO PROCESSOR:
A processor is the logic circuitry that responds to and processes the basic instructions that
drives a computer.
The term processor has generally replaced the term central processing unit (cpu). The
processor in a personal computer or embedded in small devices is often called a
microprocessor.
The processor (cpu, for central processing unit) is the computer's brain. It allows the
processing of numeric data, meaning information entered in binary form, and the execution
of instructions stored in memory.
•A microprocessor is used as the cpu in a microcomputer. There are now many different
microprocessors available.
Microprocessor is a program-controlled device, which fetches the instructions from
memory, decodes and executes the instructions. Most micro processor are single- chip
devices.
Microprocessor is a backbone of computer system. Which is called CPU
Microprocessor speed depends on the processing speed depends on DATA BUS WIDTH.
A common way of categorizing microprocessors is by the no. Of bits that their ALU can
work with at a time
The address bus is unidirectional because the address information is always given by the
micro processor to address a memory location of an input / output devices.
The data bus is bi-directional because the same bus is used for transfer of data between
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It has limitations on the size of data. Most microprocessor does not support floating-point
operations.
Microprocessor contain rom chip because it contain instructions to execute data.
What is the primary & secondary storage device? -
a) Primary devices are: Ram (read / write memory, high speed, volatile memory)
In primary storage device the storage capacity is limited. It has a volatile memory.
In 1974, intel announced the 8080 followed by 8085 is a 8-bit processor because 8085 processor has 8 bit ALU (arithmetic logic
review). Similarly 8086 processor has 16 bit ALU.
This had a larger instruction set then 8080. Used NMOS transistors, so it operated much faster than the 8008.
The 8080 is referred to as a “second generation microprocessor”
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CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
This device coordinates all operations of a micro computer. It fetches programs stored in rom‟s or rams and
executes the instructions depending one a specific instructions set, Which is characteristic of each type of CPU,
and which is recognized by the CPU.
The random access memory (ram): temporary or trail programs are written.
Besides the rom area, every computer has some memory space for temporary storage of data
as well as for programs under development. These memory devices are rams or read – write
memory.
The contents of it are not permanent and are altered when power is turned off. So the RAM
memory is considered to be volatile memory.
It has 16-bit address bus and hence can address up to 216 = 65536 bytes
(64kb) Memory locations through a0-a15.
The first 8 lines of address bus and 8 lines of data bus are multiplexed ad0 - ad7
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Data bus is a group of 8 lines D 0 - D 7.
It supports external interrupt request.8085 consists of 16 bit
Data Bus:
The data bus is a group of eight lines used for data flow.
These lines are bi-directional - data flow in both directions between the MPU and memory and peripheral
devices.
The MPU uses the data bus to perform the second function: transferring binary information.
The eight data lines enable the MPU to manipulate 8-bit data ranging from 00 to FF (28 = 256 numbers).
The largest number that can appear on the data bus is 11111111. 14
Control Bus:
The control bus carries synchronization signals and providing timing signals.
The MPU generates specific control signals for every operation it performs. These signals are
used to identify a device type with which the MPU wants to communicate.
Registers of 8085:
The 8085 have six general-purpose registers to store 8-bit data during program execution.
They can be combined as register pairs-BC, DE, and HL-to perform some 16-bit operations.
Accumulator (A):
The accumulator is an 8-bit register that is part of the arithmetic/logic unit (ALU).
This register is used to store 8-bit data and to perform arithmetic and logical operations.
The result of an operation is stored in the accumulator.
Flags:
The ALU includes five flip-flops that are set or reset according to the result of an operation.
The microprocessor uses the flags for testing the data conditions.
They are zero (z), carry (cy), sign (s), parity (p), and auxiliary carry (ac) flags. The most
commonly used flags are sign, zero, and carry.
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The bit position for the flags in flag register is,
3.Auxiliary Carry Flag (AC): If D3 generates any carry when doing any arithmetic and logical operation, this flag
4.Parity Flag (P): If the result of arithmetic and logical operation contains even number of 1's then this flag will be
5.Carry Flag (CY): If any arithmetic and logical operation result any carry then carry flag is set otherwise it is
reset.
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): It is used to perform the arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, increment and decrement and logical operations like AND, OR and EX-OR.
ALE is used for provide control signal to synchronize the components of microprocessor and timing for
instruction to perform the operation.
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Revision on Microprocessors
Terms used
known as peripherals.
Basic Block Diagram of a Computer
Later on around late 1960’s, traditional block diagram can be replaced with computer having
microprocessor as CPU which is known as microcomputer.
Here CPU was designed using integrated circuit technology (ic’s) which provided the possibility to
build the CPU on a single chip.
Fig 1.2 (b): block diagram of a computer with the microprocessor as CPU
Later on semiconductor fabrication technology became more advanced, manufacturers were able
to place not only MPU but also memory and I/O interfacing circuits on a single chip known
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microcontroller, which also includes additional devices such as A/D converter, serial
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I/O, timer etc.
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Basic Block Diagram of a Computer
Microprocessor:
It is clock driven semiconductor device consisting of electronic logic circuits manufactured
by using either a large scale integration (LSI) or very large scale integration (VLSI) technique.
It is capable of performing various computing functions and making decisions to change the
sequence of program execution. It can be divided in to three segments.
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CONT..
1) Arithmetic/logic unit: it performs arithmetic operations as addition and subtraction
and logic operations as AND, OR & XOR.
2) Register array: the registers are primarily used to store data temporarily during the
execution of a program and are accessible to the user through instruction.
3) Control unit: it provides the necessary timing and control signals to all the operations
in the microcomputer.
It controls the flow of data between the microprocessor and memory & peripherals.
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CONT..
Memory:
Memory stores binary information such as instructions and data, and provides that information
to the up whenever necessary.
To execute programs, the microprocessor reads instructions and data from memory and
performs the computing operations in its ALU.
Results are either transferred to the output section for display or stored in memory for later
use.
Memory has two sections.
READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM): Used to store programs that do not need alterations and can only read.
READ/WRITE MEMORY (RAM): Also known as user memory which is used to store user programs and data.
• The information stored in this memory can be easily read and altered.
It communicates with the outside world using two devices input and output which are also
known as peripherals.
The input device such as keyboard, switches, and analog to digital converter transfer
binary information from outside world to the microprocessor.
The output devices transfer data from the microprocessor to the outside world.
They include the devices such as LED, CRT, digital to analog converter, printer etc.
System Bus:
It is a communication path between the microprocessor and peripherals; it is nothing but a
group of wires to carry bits.
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BUS ORGANIZATION
Bus is a common channel through which bits from any sources can be transferred to the
destination.
A typical digital computer has many registers and paths must be provided to transfer
instructions from one register to another.
The number of wires will be excessive if separate lines are used between each register and
all other registers in the system.
A more efficient scheme for transferring information between registers in a multiple register
configuration is a common bus system.
A bus structure consists of a set of common lines, one for each bit of a register, through
which binary information is transferred one at a time.
Control signals determine which register is selected by the bus during each particular
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register transfer.
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BUS ORGANIZATION A very easy way of constructing a common bus
system is with multiplexers.
The most efficient and versatile electronic machine computer is basically a development of a
calculator which leads to the development of the computer. The older computer were
mechanical and newer are digital.
The mechanical computer namely difference engine and analytical engine developed by
charles babbage the father of the computer can be considered as the forerunners of modern
digital computers.
The difference engine was a mechanical device that could add and subtract and could only run
a single algorithm. It’s output system was incompatible to write on punched cards and early
optical disks.
The ‘analytical engine’ provided more advanced features. It consisted mainly four
components the store (memory), the mill (computation unit) , input section (punched card
reader) and output section (punched and printed output).
The store consisted of 1000s of words of 50 decimal digits used to hold variables
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The mill could accept operands from the store, add, subtract, multiply or divide them and return
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Historical Background Of The Development Of Computers:
The evolution of the vacuum tubes led the development of computer into a new era.
The world’s first general purpose electronic digital computer was ENIAC (electronic
numerical integrator and calculator) built by using vacuum tubes was enormous in size and
consumed very high power.
However it was faster than mechanical computers.
The ENIAC was decimal machine and performed only decimal numbers. Its memory
consisted of 20 ‘accumulators’ each capable of holding 10 digits decimal numbers.
Each digit was represented by a ring of 10 vacuum tubes. ENIAC had to be programmed
manually by setting switches and plugging and unplug a cable which was the main
drawback of it.
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Automated calculator:
It is a data processing device that carries out logic and arithmetic operations but
has limited programming capability for the user.
It accepts data from a small keyboard one digit at a time performs required
arithmetic and logical calculations and stores the result on visual display like
LCD or LED.
The calculator’s programs are stored in Rom’s while the data is stored in RAM.
The simplest way to organize a computer is to have one processor, register and instruction
code format with two parts op-code and address/operand.
The memory address tells the control where to find an operand in memory.
This operand is read from memory and used as data to be operated on together with the data
stored in the processor register.
Instructions are stored in one section of same memory. It is called stored program concept.
The task of entering and altering the programs for eniac was tedious. It could be facilitated if
the program could be represented in a form suitable for storing in memory alongside the data.
So the computer could get its instructions by reading from the memory and program could
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be
set or altered by setting the values of a portion of memory.
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Stored Program Concept and Von-Neumann Machine:
This approach is known as 'stored- program concept' was first adopted by john von neumann and such architecture
is named as von-neumann architecture and shown in figure below
•The von–neumann architecture is the fundamental basis for the architecture of modern digital
computers.
•It consisted of 1000 storage locations which can hold words of 40 binary digits and both
instructions as well as data are stored in it.
•The storage location of control unit and ALU are called registers and the various models of
registers are:
IBR – instruction buffer register – used to temporarily hold the instruction from a word in
memory.
PC - program counter - contains the address of the next instruction to be fetched from
memory.
AC & MQ (accumulator and multiplier quotient) - holds the operands and results of ALU
after processing.
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Harvard Architecture
In von-Neumann architecture, the same memory is used for storing instructions and data.
Similarly, a single bus called data bus or address bus is used for reading data and instructions
from or writing to memory.
It also had limited the processing speed for computers. The hardvard architecture based
computer consists of separate memory spaces for the programs (instructions) and data.
Each space has its own address and data buses. So instructions and data can be fetched from
memory concurrently and provides significance processing speed improvement.
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Fig: Harvard Architecture Based Microprocessor 05/25/2023
The control unit controls the sequence of operations. Central ALU consists of ALU, multiplier,
accumulator and scaling chief register.
The PC used to address program memory and always contains the address of next instruction to be
executed. Here data and control buses are bidirectional and address bus is unidirectional.
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Processing cycle of a stored program computer
Fetch
Identify
Fetch data
Process
Write back
Microinstructions and hardwired/microprogrammed control unit micro-operations
Fetch – Registers
a) Memory Address Register (MAR)
Connected to address bus
Specifies address for read or write op
b). Memory Buffer Register (MBR)
Connected to data bus
Holds data to write or last data read
c) Program Counter (PC)
Holds address of next instruction to be fetched
d) Instruction Register (IR)
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• We have to derive the Boolean expression for each control signal as a function of input.
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• Since modern processor needs a Boolean equation, it is very difficult to build a
combinational circuit that satisfies all these operations.
• It has faster mode of operation.
• A hardwired control unit needs rewiring if design has to be modified.
2. Micro-programmed Control Unit
Within the fetch cycle, the operations performed during execution of instruction MOV A, B
are:
i) The program counter contains the address of the next instruction to be executed. If
the next instruction to be executed is MOV A, B; the program counter contains the
address of the memory location where the instruction code for MOV A, B resides.
In the first operation of fetch cycle, the contents of program counter will be transferred
to the memory address register (MAR). The memory address register then uses the
address bus to transmit its contents that specifies the address of memory location from
where that instruction code of MOV A, B is to be fetched.
iii)Finally the contents of MBR will be transferred to the instruction register and then the program counter gets
incremented.
Let t3 be the time required by the CPU to complete these operations.
t3 : IR (MBR)
PC PC + 1
ii) When the control unit issues a memory read signal, the contents of location B will be output (written) to the memory
buffer register (MBR). Now the content of B which is to be written to memory location A is contained in MBR.
Let t2 be the time taken for that operation.
t2 : MBR (B)
iv)When the control unit issues the memory write signal, the contents of MBR will be written to the memory location
indicated by the contents of MAR in time t4.
t4 : A MBR or t4 : [MAR] MBR
Note: [MAR] = A
Program consists of instructions which contains different cycles like fetch and execute. These cycles in turn are made up of
the smaller operation called micro operations.