Perspektif Teoretik Hubungan

antara Manusia dan

Lingkungannya
•Perspektif Ekonomi Neoklasik
•Perspektif Ilmu Alam
•Perspektif Ekonomi Politik/
Dependensi
•Perspektif Ekologi Politik
•Perspektif Kombinasi/Campuran
 Theoretical Perspectives
• Neoclassical economics: How does the existing economic system
affect the issue I am addressing? Are there problems with the
kinds of market signals that are being sent? Are there ways to use
the economic system to send the "right" signals?
• Natural science: What are attributes of the particular
environment I am concerned with that may make it more or less
sensitive to the issue? Are there issues related to the carrying
capacity of the environment that I should consider?
• Political economy/dependency: What sort of resource and
economic distribution issues exist that may affect the way people
act regarding this issue? Is poverty a factor in the choices people
make about this issue?
• Combination perspective: What are the full set of causes of the
issue being addressed? Are a combination of forces at work? Does
population growth or distribution exacerbate these causes?
 POET MODEL
• Population: What attributes of the human population might help
to understand this issue? Is overall population relevant? What
about various population characteristics? How might changes in
these variables affect the issue?
• Organization: What social and cultural beliefs and practices are
relevant to the issue? Do certain social norms create the problem?
Do certain social norms mitigate the problem? How do existing
policies and regulations affect human behavior on this issue? What
do I need to learn about social and political systems to better
understand the problem?
• Environment: What are the characteristics of the environment in
question that need to be considered? Are there special
vulnerabilities or threshold effects to consider?
• Technology: How has technology played into this issue? Is
technology a cause of the problem? What options for different
technologies exist?
Figure 1. Population Growth and Natural Resources:
Poverty Trap
Figure 2. Population Growth and Natural Resources: Market-based
Harmony
Figure 3. Population Growth and Natural Resources: Dual
Effects of Poverty
Figure 4. The P-P-E Spiral
 Poverty affects population through
1. High child death rates lead parents to compensate or insure
by having more children.
2. Lack of water supply, fuel and labour-saving devices
increases the need for children to help in fields and homes.
3. Lack of security in illness and old age increases the need for
many children.
4. Lack of education means less awareness of family planning
methods and benefits, less use of clinics.
5. Lack of confidence in future and control over circumstances
does not encourage planning - including family planning.
6. Low status of women, often associated with poverty, means
women often uneducated, without power to control fertility.
 Population Affects Poverty
through:
1. Unemployment, low wages for those in
work, dilution of economic gain.
2. Increasing landlessness - inherited
plots divided and subdivided among
many children.
3. Overstretching of social services,
schools, health centres, family planning
clinics, water and sanitation services.
 Poverty affects Environment
through:
1. Difficulty in meeting today's needs
means that short-term exploitation
of the environment must take
priority over long-term protection.
2. Lack of knowledge about
environmental issues and long-term
consequences of today's actions.
Environment affects Poverty
through:
1. Soil erosion, salination, and
flooding cause declining yields,
declining employment and
incomes, loss of fish catches.
2. Poor housing, poor services and
overcrowding exacerbate disease
problems and lower productivity.
 Population affects Environment
through
1. Increasing pressure on marginal lands, over-
exploitation of soils, overgrazing, overcutting of
wood.
2. Soil erosion, silting, flooding.
3. Increased use of pesticides, fertilizer, water for
irrigation- increased salination, pollution of
fisheries.
4. Migration to overcrowded slums, problems of
water supply and sanitation, industrial waste
dangers, indoor air pollution, mud slides.
 Key Concepts in Political
Ecology
1. Link different scales of analysis (household, farm, village,
nation, global)
2. Social and economic constraints on resource users (access,
distribution, technolology, social marginality)
3. Physical qualities of the resource (ecological marginality,
history, multiple causes of degradation)
4. Social relations of production (property ownership,
organization of production, labor exploitation)
5. Forms of integration into markets (exchange conditions,
prices, market access, state intervention)
6. Politics of knowledge (including ideas of nature)
7. Local resistance (dialectics of power)
 Characteristics of Green Revolutoin HYV
Seeds
1. Technical: Can produce dramatically higher grain yields.
2. Social: Uneven benefits because cannot be used by all farmers, may
increase inequality among social classes and regions.
3. Ecological: HYV seeds are genetically uniform and requiring irrigation,
chemical fertilizers, and pesticides. Consequently they encourage loss
biodiversity, increase soil erosion, groundwater contamination and
depletion of fresh water.
– Alternative agricultural techniques such as multi-cropping, crop rotation,
biological nitrogen fixation and biological pest control are suppressed or ignored.
4. Cultural: New production methods (modernization) and grains displaces
or devalues subsistence production and traditional agricultural practices.
5. Political: Increases state power over agricultural and aggregate gains in
production may be used to avoid structural changes such as land reform.
6. Academic: Research focus on increasing yeilds through technology
conceals the social causes of hunger.
 Demographic Detail affects
Environment
1. population size,
2. population distribution,
3. age structure,
4. racial–ethnic identity,
5. socioeconomic status,
6. immigration, and
7. household composition.
 Some specific implications of population
size for environmental policy include
• Attainment of environmental goals is likely to fail if strategies to achieve them do
not take into account changes in population size. A good example is air quality
where efforts to reduce automobile emissions are offset by increases in the number
of cars, which is in turn a function of the number of people in an affected area.
• Systems designed to accommodate waste streams may be overtaxed by population
and plan for these changes will place responsible agencies in a crisis mode of
operation with potentially disastrous consequences for the environment.
• Demand for many resources increases with population size, including demand for
housing, household goods, food, entertainment, services, automobiles, and
environmental resources such as fresh water.
• Population growth fuels (and may be fueled by) economic growth with
corresponding industrial and commercial growth that requires additional resources,
generates waste streams, and places additional demands on the environment.
• Population loss affects the tax base of a local jurisdiction and therefore the fiscal
resources that can be marshalled to address environmental issues.
• Rapid change in population size, either up or down, may present greater challenges
to systems that protect the environment, than similar changes over a longer period
of time.
Some specific implications of population distribution
for environmental policy include:
1. Population shifts from region to region affect the demand for energy to heat and cool
homes and workplaces. For example, population growth in the southwest has led to
increased demand for air conditioning.
2. Regional distribution also affects the demand placed on specific aquifers, and the
alteration of specific habitat types and ecosystems.
3. Movement of population from one region to another affects the pace of land development
activity as existing developments are abandoned and new ones initiated.
4. Growth of high-density large cities alters the reflective surface, affecting both heat
exchange (heat island effect) and atmospheric pollution, thus contributing to the
greenhouse effect.
5. Expansion of urban areas into the urban fringe contributes to loss of prime farmland,
wetlands, and other habitats, and induces changes in local hydrology (affecting runoff
and water quality).
6. Redistribution of urban populations and employment centers affects the daily commute
patterns and the number of miles travelled per day.
7. Growth in previously rural areas as people seek recreation opportunities or more
"natural" surroundings affects the quality of those very resource amenities that serve as
the attraction.
8. Changes in the distribution of population in relation to environmental hazards affects
exposure levels.
 Some specific implications of age structure in
general, and population aging in particular, for
environmental policy include:
1. The importance of air quality management may increase as the
population ages due to the growing prevalence of respiratory and other
ailments to which the elderly are particularly susceptible. This may also
translate into an increased demand for air conditioning.
2. More healthy retirees could lead to greater utilization of parks and
recreation areas or to increasing numbers of recreation homes. Migration
to areas with physical amenities may also increase with increasing
numbers of retirees.
3. Voting behavior with respect to support for the environment may be
affected if the large elderly population of the future maintains the
concern for the environment that those individuals display today.
4. Growing numbers of people in the most affluent years of their lives may
lead to an increase in second home ownership. This may occur in
ecologically sensitive areas.
5. Increasing demand for social services for the elderly (Medicare, etc.)
may reduce the amount of money available for environmental protection
activities.
 Some specific implications of racial
identity for environmental policy
include:
1) As the composition of the population changes, it
is likely that perceptions of risk will also change,
resulting in a new set of public priorities that
environmental policy must respond to.
2) Changes in composition are also likely to result
in shifting patterns of exposure to environmental
hazards among various minority groups thus
contributing to heightened concerns about
environmental justice.
 Some specific implications of socioeconomic
status for environmental policy include:

1. Affluence and education are correlated with pro-

environment views that may translate into greater
willingness to pay for environmental protection.
2. Rise in real income has spurred a growth in the number
of motor vehicles exceeding the growth in population.
3. Income growth raises expectations about what is
"required" in a new home – larger and with more
appliances and facilities.
4. Income growth among aging baby boomers is fueling a
growth in recreational or second home buying.
 Some specific implications of population
immigration for environmental policy
include:
1. Future population size and distribution are in part a function of
immigration levels because immigrants choose some locations
over others and contribute to fertility once they arrive. Therefore,
states under heavy immigration pressure will face additional
environmental challenges in the years to come.
2. Differences in resource use and consumption behaviors such as
water use and household size are evident, although many of these
differences disappear in subsequent generations.
3. To the extent that immigrants continue to be more racially and
ethnically diverse than the population as a whole, have incomes
below average, and tend to settle in areas where exposures to
hazards are higher than average, these trends will affect relative
exposure patterns that are the subject of environmental justice
concerns.
Specific implications of household growth
for environmental policy include:
1. The demand for products and services that pertain to
a household unit such as energy for heating and
cooling, major appliances, building materials,
landscaping supplies, and automobiles may grow
faster than population, keeping pace with the growth
in numbers of households.
2. The potential exists for expansion of residential
areas and the consequent impacts on natural areas to
be greater than would be indicated by attending only
to changes in population. Growth in households and
in vacation units contribute to these changes.