Chapter 1

The Human Body:

An Orientation

Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College

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 Anatomy

▪ Anatomy
▪ Study of the structure and shape of the body and its
parts
▪Observation is used to see sizes and relationships of
parts

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 Anatomy

▪Gross anatomy
▪Large structures
▪Easily observable

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 Anatomy

▪Let’s look at an example of gross anatomy using

the digestive system organs

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Figure 1.2i The body’s organ systems.

Oral cavity

Esophagus

Stomach

Small
intestine

Large
intestine

Rectum

(i) Digestive System

Breaks food down into absorbable
nutrients that enter the blood for
distribution to body cells; indigestible
foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
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 Anatomy

▪Microscopic anatomy
▪Structures are too small to be seen with the naked eye
▪Cells and tissues can be viewed only with a
microscope

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 Anatomy

▪Let’s look at an example of microscopic anatomy

using a digestive system organ, the stomach

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Figure 14.4c Anatomy of the stomach.

Gastric pits

Surface

Gastric pit
epithelium

Pyloric
sphincter
Mucous
neck cells
Gastric gland

Parietal cells

Gastric
glands
Chief cells

(c)
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Figure 14.4d Anatomy of the stomach.

Pepsinogen Pepsin
HCl

Parietal cells

Chief cells

Enteroendocrine
(d) cell

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 Physiology

▪Physiology
▪Study of how the body and its parts work or function

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 Physiology

▪Structure determines what functions can occur

▪For example, the air sacs of the lungs have very
thin walls, a feature that enables them to
exchange gases and provide oxygen to the body

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 Levels of Structural Organization

▪Six levels of structural organization

1. Atoms
2. Cells
3. Tissues
4. Organs
5. Organ systems
6. Organisms

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Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 1

Smooth muscle cell

Atoms
1 Chemical level Molecules
Atoms combine to 2 Cellular level
form molecules. Cells are made up
of molecules.

Smooth
muscle
3 Tissue level tissue
Blood Tissues consist of
vessels similar types of
cells.
Heart

Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle
tissue Blood
vessel
(organ)
Cardio– Connective
vascular tissue
system

4 Organ level
Organs are made up of
5 Organ system level different types of tissues.
6 Organismal level
Organ systems consist of
Human organisms are
different organs that work
made up of many organ
together closely.
systems.
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Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 2

Atoms
1 Chemical level Molecules
Atoms combine to
form molecules.

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Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 3

Smooth muscle cell

Atoms
1 Chemical level Molecules
Atoms combine to 2 Cellular level
form molecules. Cells are made up
of molecules.

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Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 4

Smooth muscle cell

Atoms
1 Chemical level Molecules
Atoms combine to 2 Cellular level
form molecules. Cells are made up
of molecules.

Smooth
muscle
3 Tissue level tissue
Tissues consist of
similar types of
cells.

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Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 5

Smooth muscle cell

Atoms
1 Chemical level Molecules
Atoms combine to 2 Cellular level
form molecules. Cells are made up
of molecules.

Smooth
muscle
3 Tissue level tissue
Tissues consist of
similar types of
cells.

Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle
tissue Blood
vessel
(organ)
Connective
tissue

4 Organ level
Organs are made up of
different types of tissues.

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Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 6

Smooth muscle cell

Atoms
1 Chemical level Molecules
Atoms combine to 2 Cellular level
form molecules. Cells are made up
of molecules.

Smooth
muscle
3 Tissue level tissue
Blood Tissues consist of
vessels similar types of
cells.
Heart

Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle
tissue Blood
vessel
(organ)
Cardio– Connective
vascular tissue
system

4 Organ level
Organs are made up of
5 Organ system level different types of tissues.
Organ systems consist of
different organs that work
together closely.
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Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 7

Smooth muscle cell

Atoms
1 Chemical level Molecules
Atoms combine to 2 Cellular level
form molecules. Cells are made up
of molecules.

Smooth
muscle
3 Tissue level tissue
Blood Tissues consist of
vessels similar types of
cells.
Heart

Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle
tissue Blood
vessel
(organ)
Cardio– Connective
vascular tissue
system

4 Organ level
Organs are made up of
5 Organ system level different types of tissues.
6 Organismal level
Organ systems consist of
Human organisms are
different organs that work
made up of many organ
together closely.
systems.
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 Organ System Overview

▪Integumentary system
▪Forms the external body covering (skin) and includes
hair and fingernails
▪Waterproofs the body
▪Cushions and protects deeper tissue from injury
▪Produces vitamin D with the help of sunlight
▪Excretes salts in perspiration
▪Helps regulate body temperature
▪Location of cutaneous nerve receptors

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Figure 1.2a The body’s organ systems.

Hair

Skin

Fingernails

(a) Integumentary System

Forms the external body covering;
protects deeper tissue from injury;
synthesizes vitamin D; location of
sensory receptors (pain, pressure,
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 Organ System Overview

▪Skeletal system
▪Consists of bones, cartilages, ligaments, and joints
▪Provides muscle attachment for movement
▪Protects vital organs
▪Site of blood cell formation
▪Stores minerals

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Figure 1.2b The body’s organ systems.

Cartilages

Joint

Bones

(b) Skeletal System

Protects and supports body
organs; provides a framework the
muscles use to cause movement;
blood cells are formed within
bones; stores minerals.
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 Organ System Overview

▪Muscular system
▪Skeletal muscles contract (or shorten)
▪Produces movement of bones

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Figure 1.2c The body’s organ systems.

Skeletal
muscles

(c) Muscular System

Allows manipulation of the
environment, locomotion, and
facial expression; maintains
posture; produces heat.
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 Organ System Overview

▪Nervous system
▪Fast-acting control system
▪Consists of brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory
receptors
▪Responds to internal and external stimuli
▪Sensory receptors detect changes
▪Messages are sent to the central nervous system
▪Central nervous system assesses information and
activates effectors (muscles and glands)

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Figure 1.2d The body’s organ systems.

Brain

Sensory
receptor

Spinal
cord

Nerves

(d) Nervous System

Fast-acting control system of the
body; responds to internal and
external changes by activating
appropriate muscles and glands.
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 Organ System Overview

▪Endocrine system
▪Secretes chemical molecules, called hormones, into
the blood
▪Body functions controlled by hormones include:
▪ Growth
▪ Reproduction
▪ Use of nutrients

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 Organ System Overview

▪Endocrine system (continued)

▪Endocrine glands include:
▪ Pituitary gland
▪ Thyroid and parathyroids
▪ Adrenal glands
▪ Thymus
▪ Pancreas
▪ Pineal gland
▪ Ovaries (females) and testes (males)

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Figure 1.2e The body’s organ systems.

Pineal gland

Pituitary gland

Thyroid gland
(parathyroid glands
on posterior aspect)

Thymus gland
Adrenal glands
Pancreas

Testis (male)

Ovary (female)

(e) Endocrine System

Glands secrete hormones that
regulate processes such as growth,
reproduction, and nutrient use by
body cells.
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 Organ System Overview

▪Cardiovascular system
▪Includes heart and blood vessels
▪ Heart pumps blood
▪ Vessels transport blood to tissues
▪Blood transports:
▪ Oxygen and carbon dioxide
▪ Nutrients
▪ Hormones
▪Blood also contains white blood cells and chemicals
that provide protection from foreign invaders

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Figure 1.2f The body’s organ systems.

Heart

Blood
vessels

(f) Cardiovascular System

Blood vessels transport blood,
which carries oxygen, nutrients,
hormones, carbon dioxide, wastes,
etc.; the heart pumps blood.
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 Organ System Overview

▪Lymphatic system
▪Includes lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and
lymphoid organs
▪Complements the cardiovascular system by returning
leaked fluids back to bloodstream
▪Lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs cleanse the
blood
▪Houses white blood cells, which are involved in
immunity

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Figure 1.2g The body’s organ systems.

Lymph
nodes

Lymphatic
vessels

(g) Lymphatic System

Picks up fluid leaked from blood
vessels and returns it to blood;
disposes of debris in the
lymphatic stream; houses white
blood cells involved in immunity.
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 Organ System Overview

▪Respiratory system
▪Includes the nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, and lungs
▪Gases are exchanged with the blood through air sacs
in the lungs
▪ Supplies the body with oxygen
▪ Removes carbon dioxide

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Figure 1.2h The body’s organ systems.

Nasal
cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Lungs

(h) Respiratory System

Keeps blood constantly supplied
with oxygen and removes carbon
dioxide; the gaseous exchanges
occur through the walls of the air
sacs of the lungs.
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 Organ System Overview

▪Digestive system
▪Includes the oral cavity (mouth), esophagus, stomach,
small and large intestines, rectum, and accessory
organs
▪Breaks down food
▪Allows for nutrient absorption into blood
▪Eliminates indigestible material as feces

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Figure 1.2i The body’s organ systems.

Oral cavity

Esophagus

Stomach

Small
intestine

Large
intestine

Rectum

(i) Digestive System

Breaks food down into absorbable
nutrients that enter the blood for
distribution to body cells; indigestible
foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
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 Organ System Overview

▪Urinary system
▪Includes the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and
urethra
▪Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
▪Maintains acid-base balance
▪Regulates water and electrolyte balance
▪Helps regulate normal blood pressure

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Figure 1.2j The body’s organ systems.

Kidney

Ureter

Urinary
bladder

Urethra

(j) Urinary System

Eliminates nitrogen-containing
wastes from the body; regulates
water, electrolyte, and acid-base
balance of the blood.
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 Organ System Overview

▪Reproductive system
▪For males, includes the testes, scrotum, penis,
accessory glands, and duct system
▪ Testes produce sperm
▪ Duct system carries sperm to exterior
▪For females, includes the ovaries, uterine tubes,
uterus, and vagina
▪ Ovaries produce eggs
▪ Uterus provides site of development for fetus

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Figure 1.2k-l The body’s organ systems.

Mammary
glands
(in breasts)
Prostate
Seminal gland Uterine
vesicles tube

Ovary

Uterus

Penis
Testis
Vagina
Scrotum

(k) Male Reproductive System (l) Female Reproductive System

Overall function of the reproductive system is production of offspring. Testes
produce sperm and male sex hormone; ducts and glands aid in delivery of viable
sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex
hormones; remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of
the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.
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 Maintaining Life: Necessary Life Functions

▪Maintaining boundaries
▪Boundaries separate the “inside” from the “outside”
▪Movement
▪Locomotion
▪Movement of substances
▪Responsiveness (irritability)
▪Ability to sense changes and react
▪Digestion
▪Breakdown and absorption of nutrients

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 Necessary Life Functions

▪Metabolism—chemical reactions within the body

▪Breaks down complex molecules into smaller ones
▪Builds larger molecules from smaller ones
▪Produces energy (ATP)
▪Regulated by hormones
▪Excretion
▪Eliminates excreta (waste) from metabolic reactions
▪Wastes may be removed in urine, feces, or sweat

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 Necessary Life Functions

▪Reproduction
▪Occurs on cellular level or organismal level
▪ On cellular level—new cells are used for growth and
repair
▪ On organismal level—the reproductive system handles
the task
▪Growth
▪Increases cell size or body size (through increasing
the number of cells)
▪Hormones play a major role

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 Survival Needs

▪Nutrients
▪Chemicals used for energy and cell building
▪Include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and
minerals
▪Oxygen
▪Required for chemical reactions
▪Made available by the cooperation of the respiratory
and cardiovascular systems

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 Survival Needs

▪Water
▪60 to 80 percent of body weight
▪Most abundant chemical in the human body
▪Provides fluid base for body secretions and excretions
▪Normal body temperature
▪37ºC (98.6ºF)
▪Below this temperature, chemical reactions slow and
stop
▪Above this temperature, chemical reactions proceed
too rapidly

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 Survival Needs

▪Atmospheric pressure
▪Must be appropriate for gas exchange

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Figure 1.3 Examples of interrelationships among organ systems that illustrate life functions.
Digestive system Respiratory system
Takes in nutrients, digests them Takes in oxygen, which is
(part of metabolism), and excretes required for metabolism, and
unabsorbed matter (feces) excretes carbon dioxide
Food O2 CO2

Cardiovascular system
Via the blood, distributes oxygen
and nutrients to all body cells and
delivers wastes and carbon dioxide
to disposal organs

Blood
CO2
O2

Heart
Urinary system
Nutrients Excretes nitrogen-
containing wastes
and excess ions
Interstitial fluid

Nutrients and wastes pass

between blood and cells
via the interstitial fluid

Integumentary system
Feces are Protects the body as a whole Urine is
excreted excreted
from the external environment
by maintaining boundaries
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 The Language of Anatomy

▪Special terminology is used to prevent

misunderstanding
▪Exact terms are used for:
▪Position
▪Direction
▪Regions
▪Structures

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 The Language of Anatomy

▪Anatomical position
▪Standard body position used to avoid confusion
▪Terminology refers to this position regardless of actual
body position
▪Stand erect, feet parallel, arms hanging at the sides
with palms facing forward and thumbs pointing away
from the body

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Figure 1.4a The anatomical position and regional terms.

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 Directional Terms

▪Directional terms
▪Explain location of one body structure in relation to
another

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 Directional Terms

▪Superior (cranial or cephalic): toward the head or

upper part of a structure or the body; above
▪Inferior (caudal): away from the head or toward
the lower part of a structure or the body; below

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 Directional Terms

▪Anterior (ventral): toward or at the front of the

body; in front of
▪Posterior (dorsal): toward or at the backside of
the body; behind

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Table 1.1 Orientation and Directional Terms (1 of 3)

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 Directional Terms

▪Medial: toward or at the midline of the body; on

the inner side of
▪Lateral: away from the midline of the body; on the
outer side of
▪Intermediate: between a more medial and a more
lateral structure

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 Directional Terms

▪Proximal: close to the origin of the body part or

point of attachment to a limb to the body trunk
▪Distal: farther from the origin of a body part or the
point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

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Table 1.1 Orientation and Directional Terms (2 of 3)

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 Directional Terms

▪Superficial (external): toward or at the body

surface
▪Deep (internal): away from the body surface;
more internal

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Table 1.1 Orientation and Directional Terms (3 of 3)

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 Regional Terms

▪Anterior (ventral) body landmarks

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Figure 1.4a The anatomical position and regional terms.

Cephalic
Fronta
O
l rbita Upper limb
Nl asal Acromial
Bucca Deltoid
lOral Brachial (arm)
Men Antecubital
tal
Cervical
Olecranal
Thoracic
Sternal Antebrach
Axillary ial
Pectora (forearm)
Carpal
l (wrist)
Abdomin Manus
alUmbilic Digital
(hand)
al
Pelvic
Inguina
l Lower
(groin) limbCoxal
Pubic (genital) (hip)
Femoral
(thigh)
Patellar

Crural
KEY: (leg)
Thorax Fibular
Abdomen Pedal
Tarsal (ankle)
(foot)

Digital

(a) Anterior/Ventral
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 Regional Terms

▪Posterior (dorsal) body landmarks

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Figure 1.4b The anatomical position and regional terms.

Cephalic
Upper limb Occipital
Acromial (back
of head)
Cervical
Brachial (arm)

Olecranal Back (dorsal)

Antebrach Scapular
ial Vertebral
(forearm)
Lumbar

Manus Sacral
Digital
(hand)
Glutea
l
Lower
limb
Femoral
(thigh)
Poplitea
l
Sural (calf)
Fibular
KEY:
Pedal
Back (Dorsum)
(foot)
Calcane
al
Planta
r (b) Posterior/Dorsal
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 Body Planes and Sections

▪Sections are cuts along imaginary lines known as

planes
▪Three types of planes or sections exist as right
angles to one another

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 Body Planes and Sections

▪A sagittal section divides the body (or organ) into

left and right parts
▪A median, or midsagittal, section divides the body
(or organ) into equal left and right parts
▪A frontal, or coronal, section divides the body (or
organ) into anterior and posterior parts
▪A transverse, or cross, section divides the body
(or organ) into superior and inferior parts

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Figure 1.5 The planes of the body—median, frontal, and transverse—with corresponding MRI scans.

(a) Median (midsagittal) (b) Frontal (coronal) plane (c) Transverse plane

Vertebral Right Left

column lung Heart lung Liver Aorta Pancreas Spleen

Rectum Intestines Liver Stomach Spleen Subcutaneous Spinal

fat layer cord
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 Body Cavities

▪Two internal body cavities

▪Dorsal
▪Ventral
▪Body cavities provide varying degrees of
protection to organs within them

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Figure 1.6 Body cavities.

Cranial
cavity

Thoracic
cavity

Diaphragm

Abdominal

Abdominopelvic
Spinal cavity
cavity

cavity
Pelvic
cavity

KEY
: Dorsal body cavity Ventral body cavity
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 Body Cavities

▪Dorsal body cavity has two subdivisions

1. Cranial cavity
▪ Houses the brain
▪ Protected by the skull
2. Spinal cavity
▪ Houses the spinal cord
▪ Protected by the vertebrae

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 Body Cavities

▪Ventral body cavity has two subdivisions

separated by the diaphragm
1. Thoracic cavity
2. Abdominopelvic cavity

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 Body Cavities

▪Thoracic cavity
▪Cavity superior to the diaphragm
▪Houses heart, lungs, and other organs
▪Mediastinum, the central region, houses heart,
trachea, and other organs
▪Protected by the rib cage

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 Body Cavities

▪Abdominopelvic cavity
▪Cavity inferior to the diaphragm
▪Superior abdominal cavity contains the stomach, liver,
and other organs
▪ Protected only by trunk muscles
▪Inferior pelvic cavity contains reproductive organs,
bladder, and rectum
▪ Protected somewhat by bony pelvis
▪No physical structure separates abdominal from pelvic
cavities

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 Body Cavities

▪Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions

▪Four quadrants
▪Nine regions

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Figure 1.7 The four abdominopelvic quadrants.

Right upper Left upper

quadrant quadrant
(RUQ) (LUQ)

Right lower Left lower

quadrant quadrant
(RLQ) (LLQ)

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Figure 1.8 The nine abdominopelvic regions.

Diaphragm
Liver Stomach

Right Left
hypochondriac Epigastric hypochondriac Large
region region Large
region intestine
intestine
Right Left
lumbar Umbilical lumbar
Small intestine
region region region

Appendix
Right iliac Hypogastric Left iliac Urinary
(inguinal) (pubic) (inguinal)
region region region bladder
(b) Anterior view of the nine regions
(a) Nine regions delineated by four planes showing the superficial organs

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 Body Cavities

▪Other body cavities include:

▪Oral and digestive cavities
▪Nasal cavity
▪Orbital cavities
▪Middle ear cavities

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 Homeostasis

▪Homeostasis—maintenance of relatively stable

internal conditions
▪A dynamic state of equilibrium, or balance
▪Necessary for normal body functioning and to sustain
life
▪Main controlling systems
▪Nervous system
▪Endocrine system
▪Homeostatic imbalance
▪A disturbance in homeostasis results in disease

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 Maintaining Homeostasis

▪All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least

three components: receptor, control center, and
effector
▪Receptor
▪ Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli)
▪ Sends information to control center along an afferent
pathway

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 Maintaining Homeostasis

▪Control center
▪Determines set point
▪Analyzes information
▪Determines appropriate response
▪Effector
▪Provides a means for response to the stimulus
▪Information flows from control center to effector along
efferent pathway

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 Feedback Mechanisms

▪Negative feedback
▪Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms
▪Shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity
▪Works like a household thermostat

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Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system. Slide 1

3 Input: Information 4 Output: Information

Control
is sent along afferent is sent along efferent
Center
pathway to control pathway to effector.
center. Afferent Efferent
pathway pathway
Receptor Effector
2 Receptor
5 Response
detects change.
of effector feeds
IM
BA back to reduce
1 Stimulus LA
NC the effect of
E
produces stimulus and
change in VARIABLE (in homeostasis) returns variable
variable. to homeostatic
level.

IM
BA
LA
NC
E

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Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system. Slide 2

IM
BA
1 Stimulus LA
NC
E
produces
change in VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
variable.

IM
BA
LA
NC
E

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Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system. Slide 3

Receptor
2 Receptor
detects change.
IM
BA
1 Stimulus LA
NC
E
produces
change in VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
variable.

IM
BA
LA
NC
E

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Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system. Slide 4

3 Input: Information
Control
is sent along afferent Center
pathway to control
center. Afferent
pathway
Receptor
2 Receptor
detects change.
IM
BA
1 Stimulus LA
NC
E
produces
change in VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
variable.

IM
BA
LA
NC
E

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Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system. Slide 5

3 Input: Information 4 Output: Information

Control
is sent along afferent is sent along efferent
Center
pathway to control pathway to effector.
center. Afferent Efferent
pathway pathway
Receptor Effector
2 Receptor
detects change.
IM
BA
1 Stimulus LA
NC
E
produces
change in VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
variable.

IM
BA
LA
NC
E

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Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system. Slide 6

3 Input: Information 4 Output: Information

Control
is sent along afferent is sent along efferent
Center
pathway to control pathway to effector.
center. Afferent Efferent
pathway pathway
Receptor Effector
2 Receptor
5 Response
detects change.
of effector feeds
IM
BA back to reduce
1 Stimulus LA
NC the effect of
E
produces stimulus and
change in VARIABLE (in homeostasis) returns variable
variable. to homeostatic
level.

IM
BA
LA
NC
E

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 Feedback Mechanisms

▪Positive feedback
▪Rare in the human body
▪Increases the original stimulus to push the variable
farther
▪Reaction occurs at a faster rate
▪In the body, positive feedback occurs in blood clotting
and during the birth of a baby

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