Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

Twelfth Edition

Chapter 6
The Muscular System

Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College

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The Muscular System
•  Muscles are responsible for all types of body movement
•  Three basic muscle types are found in the body

1.  Skeletal muscle

2.  Cardiac muscle
3.  Smooth muscle

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Muscle Types (1 of 6)
•  Skeletal and smooth muscle cells are elongated
(muscle cell = muscle fiber)
•  Contraction and shortening of muscles are due to
the movement of microfilaments
•  All muscles share some terminology
–  Prefixes myo- and mys- refer to “muscle”
–  Prefix sarco- refers to “flesh”

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Table 6.1 Comparison of Skeletal,
Cardiac, and Smooth Muscles (1 of 3)

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Table 6.1 Comparison of Skeletal,
Cardiac, and Smooth Muscles (2 of 3)

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Table 6.1 Comparison of Skeletal,
Cardiac, and Smooth Muscles (3 of 3)

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Muscle Types (2 of 6)
•  Skeletal muscle
–  Most skeletal muscle fibers are attached by tendons
to bones
–  Skeletal muscle cells are large, cigar-shaped, and
multinucleate
–  Also known as striated muscle because of its
obvious stripes
–  Also known as voluntary muscle because it is the
only muscle tissue subject to conscious control

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Muscle Types (3 of 6)
•  Skeletal muscle cells are surrounded and bundled by
connective tissue
–  Endomysium—encloses a single muscle fiber
–  Perimysium—wraps around a fascicle (bundle) of
muscle fibers
–  Epimysium—covers the entire skeletal muscle
–  Fascia—on the outside of the epimysium

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Figure 6.1 Connective Tissue
Wrappings of Skeletal Muscle

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Muscle Types (4 of 6)
•  The epimysium of skeletal muscle blends into a
connective tissue attachment
–  Tendons—cordlike structures
▪  Mostly collagen fibers
▪  Often cross a joint because of their toughness and
small size
–  Aponeuroses—sheetlike structures
▪  Attach muscles indirectly to bones, cartilages, or
connective tissue coverings

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Muscle Types (5 of 6)
•  Smooth muscle
–  No striations
–  Involuntary—no conscious control
–  Found mainly in the walls of hollow visceral organs
(such as stomach, urinary bladder, respiratory
passages)
–  Spindle-shaped fibers that are uninucleate
–  Contractions are slow and sustained

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Figure 6.2a Arrangement of Smooth and
Cardiac Muscle Cells

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Muscle Types (6 of 6)
•  Cardiac muscle
–  Striations
–  Involuntary
–  Found only in the walls of the heart
–  Uninucleate
–  Branching cells joined by gap junctions called
intercalated discs
–  Contracts at a steady rate set by pacemaker

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Figure 6.2b Arrangement of Smooth
and Cardiac Muscle Cells

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Muscle Functions
•  Whereas all muscle types produce movement,
skeletal muscle has three other important roles:
–  Maintain posture and body position
–  Stabilize joints
–  Generate heat

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Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal
Muscle (1 of 6)
•  Sarcolemma—specialized plasma membrane
•  Myofibrils—long organelles inside muscle cell
–  Light (I) bands and dark (A) bands give the muscle its
striated (banded) appearance

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Figure 6.3a Anatomy of a Skeletal
Muscle Fiber (Cell)

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Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal
Muscle (2 of 6)
•  Banding pattern of myofibrils
–  I band = light band
▪  Contains only thin filaments
▪  Z disc is a midline interruption
–  A band = dark band
▪  Contains the entire length of the thick filaments
▪  H zone is a lighter central area
▪  M line is in center of H zone

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Figure 6.3b Anatomy of a Skeletal
Muscle Fiber (Cell)

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Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal
Muscle (3 of 6)
•  Sarcomere—contractile unit of a muscle fiber
–  Structural and functional unit of skeletal muscle
•  Organization of the sarcomere
–  Myofilaments produce banding (striped) pattern
▪  Thick filaments = myosin filaments
▪  Thin filaments = actin filaments

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Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal
Muscle (4 of 6)
•  Thick filaments = myosin filaments
–  Composed of the protein myosin
–  Contain ATPase enzymes to split ATP to release
energy for muscle contractions
–  Possess projections known as myosin heads
–  Myosin heads are known as cross bridges when they
link thick and thin filaments during contraction

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Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal
Muscle (5 of 6)
•  Thin filaments = actin filaments
–  Composed of the contractile protein actin
–  Actin is anchored to the Z disc
•  At rest, within the A band there is a zone that lacks actin
filaments called the H zone
•  During contraction, H zones disappear as actin and myosin
filaments overlap

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Figure 6.3c Anatomy of a Skeletal
Muscle Fiber (Cell)

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Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal
Muscle (6 of 6)
•  Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
–  Specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum
–  Surrounds the myofibril
–  Stores and releases calcium

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Stimulation and Contraction of Single
Skeletal Muscle Cells
•  Special functional properties of skeletal muscles
–  Irritability (also called responsiveness)—ability to
receive and respond to a stimulus
–  Contractility—ability to forcibly shorten when an
adequate stimulus is received
–  Extensibility—ability of muscle cells to be stretched
–  Elasticity—ability to recoil and resume resting length
after stretching

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The Nerve Stimulus and Action
Potential (1 of 7)
•  Skeletal muscles must be stimulated by a motor neuron
(nerve cell) to contract
•  Motor unit—one motor neuron and all the skeletal muscle
cells stimulated by that neuron

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Figure 6.4a Motor Units

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Figure 6.4b Motor Units

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The Nerve Stimulus and Action
Potential (2 of 7)
•  Neuromuscular junction
–  Association site of axon terminal of the motor neuron
and sarcolemma of a muscle
•  Neurotransmitter
–  Chemical released by nerve upon arrival of nerve
impulse in the axon terminal
–  Acetylcholine (ACh) is the neurotransmitter that
stimulates skeletal muscle

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The Nerve Stimulus and Action
Potential (3 of 7)
•  Synaptic cleft
–  Gap between nerve and muscle filled with interstitial
fluid
–  Although very close, the nerve and muscle do not
make contact

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The Nerve Stimulus and Action
Potential (4 of 7)
•  When a nerve impulse reaches the axon terminal of the
motor neuron,
–  Step 1: Calcium channels open, and calcium ions
enter the axon terminal
–  Step 2: Calcium ion entry causes some synaptic
vesicles to release acetylcholine (ACh)
–  Step 3: ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft and
attaches to receptors on the sarcolemma of the
muscle cell

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The Nerve Stimulus and Action
Potential (5 of 7)
–  Step 4: If enough ACh is released, the sarcolemma
becomes temporarily more permeable to sodium ions
(Na+)
▪  Potassium ions (K+) diffuse out of the cell
▪  More sodium ions enter than potassium ions leave
▪  Establishes an imbalance in which interior has more
positive ions (depolarization), thereby opening more
Na+ channels

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The Nerve Stimulus and Action
Potential (6 of 7)
–  Step 5: Depolarization opens more sodium channels
that allow sodium ions to enter the cell
▪  An action potential is created
▪  Once begun, the action potential is unstoppable
▪  Conducts the electrical impulse from one end of the
cell to the other
–  Step 6: Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) breaks down
acetylcholine into acetic acid and choline
▪  AChE ends muscle contraction
▪  A single nerve impulse produces only one
contraction

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The Nerve Stimulus and Action
Potential (7 of 7)
•  Cell returns to its resting state when:
1.  Potassium ions (K+) diffuse out of the cell
2.  Sodium-potassium pump moves sodium and potassium
ions back to their original positions

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Figure 6.5 Events at the Neuromuscular
Junction (1 of 8)

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Figure 6.5 Events at the Neuromuscular
Junction (2 of 8)

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Figure 6.5 Events at the Neuromuscular
Junction (3 of 8)

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Figure 6.5 Events at the Neuromuscular
Junction (4 of 8)

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Figure 6.5 Events at the Neuromuscular
Junction (5 of 8)

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Figure 6.5 Events at the Neuromuscular
Junction (6 of 8)

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Figure 6.5 Events at the Neuromuscular
Junction (7 of 8)

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Figure 6.5 Events at the Neuromuscular
Junction (8 of 8)

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Figure 6.6 Comparing the Action Potential to
a Flame Consuming a Dry Twig

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A&P Flix™: Events at the Neuromuscular
Junction

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Mechanism of Muscle Contraction:
The Sliding Filament Theory
•  What causes filaments to slide?
–  Calcium ions (Ca2+) bind regulatory proteins on thin
filaments and expose myosin-binding sites, allowing
the myosin heads on the thick filaments to attach
–  Each cross bridge pivots, causing the thin filaments
to slide toward the center of the sarcomere
–  Contraction occurs, and the cell shortens
–  During a contraction, a cross bridge attaches and
detaches several times
–  ATP provides the energy for the sliding process,
which continues as long as calcium ions are present

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Figure 6.7 Diagrammatic Views of a
Sarcomere

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Figure 6.8a Schematic Representation of
Contraction Mechanism: The Sliding Filament
Theory

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Figure 6.8b Schematic Representation of
Contraction Mechanism: The Sliding Filament
Theory

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Figure 6.8c Schematic Representation of
Contraction Mechanism: The Sliding Filament
Theory

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A&P Flix™: The Cross Bridge Cycle

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Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a
Whole (1 of 7)
•  Graded responses
–  Muscle fiber contraction is “all-or-none,” meaning it
will contract to its fullest when stimulated adequately
–  Within a whole skeletal muscle, not all fibers may be
stimulated during the same interval
–  Different combinations of muscle fiber contractions
may give differing responses
–  Graded responses—different degrees of skeletal
muscle shortening

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Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a
Whole (2 of 7)
•  Graded responses can be produced in two ways
–  By changing the frequency of muscle stimulation
–  By changing the number of muscle cells being
stimulated at one time

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Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a
Whole (3 of 7)
•  Muscle response to increasingly rapid stimulation
–  Muscle twitch
▪  Single, brief, jerky contraction
▪  Not a normal muscle function

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Figure 6.9a A Whole Muscle’s Response to
Different Stimulation Rates

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Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a
Whole (4 of 7)
•  Muscle response to increasingly rapid stimulation
–  In most types of muscle activity, nerve impulses are
delivered at a rapid rate
–  As a result, contractions are “summed” (added)
together, and one contraction is immediately followed
by another

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Figure 6.9b A Whole Muscle’s Response to
Different Stimulation Rates

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Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a
Whole (5 of 7)
•  Muscle response to increasingly rapid stimulation
–  When stimulations become more frequent, muscle
contractions get stronger and smoother
–  The muscle now exhibits unfused (incomplete) tetanus

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Figure 6.9c A Whole Muscle’s Response to
Different Stimulation Rates

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Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a
Whole (6 of 7)
•  Muscle response to increasingly rapid stimulation
–  Fused (complete) tetanus is achieved when the
muscle is stimulated so rapidly that no evidence of
relaxation is seen
–  Contractions are smooth and sustained

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Figure 6.9d A Whole Muscle’s Response to
Different Stimulation Rates

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Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a
Whole (7 of 7)
•  Muscle response to stronger stimuli
–  Muscle force depends upon the number of fibers
stimulated
–  Contraction of more fibers results in greater muscle
tension
–  When all motor units are active and stimulated, the
muscle contraction is as strong as it can get

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Providing Energy for Muscle
Contraction (1 of 5)
•  ATP
–  Only energy source that can be used to directly
power muscle contraction
–  Stored in muscle fibers in small amounts that are
quickly used up
–  After this initial time, other pathways must be utilized
to produce ATP

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Concept Link
Recall that ATP can be compared to a tightly coiled
spring that is ready to uncoil with tremendous energy
when the “catch” is released (Chapter 2, p. 55).
Remember that all bonds store energy and that the
“catch” in this example is one of the characteristic high-
energy phosphate bonds in ATP.

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Providing Energy for Muscle
Contraction (2 of 5)
•  Three pathways to regenerate ATP
1.  Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate
2.  Aerobic pathway
3.  Anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid formation

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Providing Energy for Muscle
Contraction (3 of 5)
•  Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate
(CP)—fastest
–  Muscle cells store CP, a high-energy molecule
–  After ATP is depleted, ADP remains
–  CP transfers a phosphate group to ADP to
regenerate ATP
–  CP supplies are exhausted in less than 15 seconds
–  1 ATP is produced per CP molecule

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Figure 6.10a Methods of Regenerating ATP
During Muscle Activity

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Providing Energy for Muscle
Contraction (4 of 5)
•  Aerobic respiration
–  Supplies ATP at rest and during light/moderate
exercise
–  A series of metabolic pathways, called oxidative
phosphorylation, use oxygen and occur in the
mitochondria
–  Glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide and
water, releasing energy (about 32 ATP)
–  This is a slower reaction that requires continuous
delivery of oxygen and nutrients

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Figure 6.10b Methods of Regenerating ATP
During Muscle Activity

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Providing Energy for Muscle
Contraction (5 of 5)
•  Anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid formation
–  Reaction that breaks down glucose without oxygen
–  Glucose is broken down to pyruvic acid to produce
about 2 ATP
–  Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid, which causes
muscle soreness
–  This reaction is not as efficient, but it is fast
–  Huge amounts of glucose are needed

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Figure 6.10c Methods of Regenerating ATP
During Muscle Activity

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Muscle Fatigue and Oxygen Deficit
•  If muscle activity is strenuous and prolonged, muscle
fatigue occurs
•  Suspected factors that contribute to muscle fatigue
include:
–  Ion imbalances (Ca2+, K+)
–  Oxygen deficit and lactic acid accumulation
–  Decrease in energy (ATP) supply
•  After exercise, the oxygen deficit is repaid by rapid, deep
breathing

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Types of Muscle Contractions
•  Isotonic contractions
–  Myofilaments are able to slide past each other during
contractions
–  The muscle shortens, and movement occurs
–  Example: bending the knee; lifting weights, smiling
•  Isometric contractions
–  Muscle filaments are trying to slide, but the muscle is
pitted against an immovable object
–  Tension increases, but muscles do not shorten
–  Example: pushing your palms together in front of you

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Muscle Tone
•  Muscle tone
–  State of continuous partial contractions
–  Result of different motor units being stimulated in a
systematic way
–  Muscle remains firm, healthy, and constantly ready for
action

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Effect of Exercise on Muscles
•  Exercise increases muscle size, strength, and endurance
–  Aerobic (endurance) exercise (biking, jogging) results
in stronger, more flexible muscles with greater
resistance to fatigue
▪  Makes body metabolism more efficient
▪  Improves digestion, coordination
–  Resistance (isometric) exercise (weight lifting)
increases muscle size and strength
▪  Individual muscle fibers enlarge

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Figure 6.11 The Effects of Aerobic
Training Versus Strength Training

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Copyright

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Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology
Twelfth Edition

Chapter 6
The Muscular System

Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College

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Muscle Movements, Roles, and Names
•  Follow the Five Golden Rules for understanding skeletal
muscle activity (in Table 6.2, shown next)

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Table 6.2 The Five Golden Rules of
Skeletal Muscle Activity
1.  With a few exceptions, all skeletal muscles cross at least
one joint.
2.  Typically, the bulk of a skeletal muscle lies proximal to
the joint crossed.
3.  All skeletal muscles have at least two attachments: the
origin and the insertion.
4.  Skeletal muscles can only pull; they never push.
5.  During contraction, a skeletal muscle insertion moves
toward the origin.

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Types of Body Movements (1 of 5)
•  Muscles are attached to no fewer than two points
1.  Origin: attachment to an immovable or less movable
bone
2.  Insertion: attachment to a movable bone
•  When the muscle contracts, the insertion moves toward
the origin
•  Body movement occurs when muscles contract across
joints

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Figure 6.12 Muscle Attachments
(Origin and Insertion)

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Types of Body Movements (2 of 5)
•  Flexion
–  Decreases the angle of the joint
–  Brings two bones closer together
–  Typical of bending hinge joints (e.g., knee and elbow)
or ball-and-socket joints (e.g., the hip)
•  Extension
–  Opposite of flexion
–  Increases angle between two bones
–  Typical of straightening the elbow or knee
–  Extension beyond 180° is hyperextension

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Figure 6.13a Body Movements

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Figure 6.13b Body Movements

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Types of Body Movements (3 of 5)
•  Rotation
–  Movement of a bone around its longitudinal axis
–  Common in ball-and-socket joints
–  Example: moving the atlas around the dens of axis
(i.e., shaking your head “no”)

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Figure 6.13c Body Movements

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Types of Body Movements (4 of 5)
•  Abduction
–  Movement of a limb away from the midline
•  Adduction
–  Opposite of abduction
–  Movement of a limb toward the midline

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Figure 6.13d Body Movements (1 of 2)

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Types of Body Movements (5 of 5)
•  Circumduction
–  Combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and
adduction
–  Common in ball-and-socket joints
–  Proximal end of bone is stationary, and distal end
moves in a circle

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Figure 6.13d Body Movements (2 of 2)

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Special Movements (1 of 4)
•  Dorsiflexion
–  Lifting the foot so that the superior surface approaches
the shin (toward the dorsum)
•  Plantar flexion
–  Pointing the toes away from the head

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Figure 6.13e Body Movements

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Special Movements (2 of 4)
•  Inversion
–  Turning sole of foot medially
•  Eversion
–  Turning sole of foot laterally

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Figure 6.13f Body Movements

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Special Movements (3 of 4)
•  Supination
–  Forearm rotates laterally so palm faces anteriorly
–  Radius and ulna are parallel
•  Pronation
–  Forearm rotates medially so palm faces posteriorly
–  Radius and ulna cross each other like an X

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Figure 6.13g Body Movements

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Special Movements (4 of 4)
•  Opposition
–  Moving the thumb to touch the tips of other fingers on
the same hand

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Figure 6.13h Body Movements

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Interactions of Skeletal Muscles
in the Body (1 of 2)
•  Muscles can only pull as they contract—not push
•  In general, groups of muscles that produce opposite
actions lie on opposite sides of a joint

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Interactions of Skeletal Muscles
in the Body (2 of 2)
•  Prime mover—muscle with the major responsibility for a
certain movement
•  Antagonist—muscle that opposes or reverses a prime
mover
•  Synergist—muscle that aids a prime mover in a
movement or reduces undesirable movements
•  Fixator—specialized synergists that hold a bone still or
stabilize the origin of a prime mover

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Figure 6.14a Muscle Action

*These generalities do not apply to the knee and ankle because the lower limb is rotated during development.
The muscles that cross these joints posteriorly produce flexion, and those that cross anteriorly produce extension.

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Figure 6.14b Muscle Action

*These generalities do not apply to the knee and ankle because the lower limb is rotated during development.
The muscles that cross these joints posteriorly produce flexion, and those that cross anteriorly produce extension.

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Figure 6.14c Muscle Action

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Figure 6.14d Muscle Action

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Naming Skeletal Muscles (1 of 3)
•  Muscles are named on the basis of several criteria
–  By direction of muscle fibers
▪  Example: rectus (straight)
–  By relative size of the muscle
▪  Example: maximus (largest)

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Naming Skeletal Muscles (2 of 3)
•  Muscles are named on the basis of several criteria
–  By location of the muscle
▪  Example: temporalis (temporal bone)
–  By number of origins
▪  Example: triceps (three heads)

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Naming Skeletal Muscles (3 of 3)
•  Muscles are named on the basis of several criteria
–  By location of the muscle’s origin and insertion
▪  Example: sterno (on the sternum)
–  By shape of the muscle
▪  Example: deltoid (triangular)
–  By action of the muscle
▪  Example: flexor and extensor (flexes or
extends a bone)

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Figure 6.15 Relationship of Fascicle
Arrangement to Muscle Structure

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Table 6.3 Superficial Anterior Muscles
of the Body (See Figure 6.22) (1 of 3)
Head/neck muscles

Name Origin Insertion Primary action(s)

Frontalis Cranial aponeurosis Skin of eyebrows Raises eyebrows
Orbicularis oculi Frontal bone and maxilla Tissue around eyes Blinks and closes eye
Orbicularis oris Mandible and maxilla Skin and muscle around Closes and protrudes lips
mouth

Temporalis Temporal bone Mandible Closes jaw

Zygomaticus Zygomatic bone Skin and muscle at corner Raises corner of mouth
of lips

Masseter Temporal bone Mandible Closes jaw

Buccinator Maxilla and mandible near Orbicularis oris Compresses cheek (as in
molars sucking); holds food between
teeth during chewing

Sternocleidomastoid Sternum and clavicle Temporal bone (mastoid Flexes neck; laterally rotates
process) head

Platysma Connective tissue covering of Tissue around mouth Tenses skin of neck (as in
superior chest muscles shaving)

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Figure 6.16 Superficial Muscles of the
Head and Neck

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Table 6.3 Superficial Anterior Muscles
of the Body (See Figure 6.22) (2 of 3)
Trunk muscles

Name Origin Insertion Primary action(s)

Pectoralis major Sternum, clavicle, and first to Proximal humerus Adducts and flexes humerus
sixth ribs
Rectus abdominis Pubis Sternum and fifth to Flexes vertebral column
seventh ribs
External oblique Lower eight ribs Iliac crest Flexes and rotates vertebral
column

Arm/shoulder muscles

Name Origin Insertion Primary action(s)

Biceps brachii Scapula of shoulder girdle Proximal radius Flexes elbow and supinates
forearm
Brachialis Distal humerus Proximal ulna Flexes elbow
Deltoid (See Table 4) Blank Abducts arm

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Figure 6.17a Muscles of the Anterior
Trunk, Shoulder, and Arm

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Figure 6.17b Muscles of the Anterior
Trunk, Shoulder, and Arm

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Table 6.3 Superficial Anterior Muscles
of the Body (See Figure 6.22) (3 of 3)
Hip/thigh/leg muscles

Name Origin Insertion Primary action(s)

Iliopsoas Ilium and lumbar vertebrae Femur (lesser trochanter) Flexes hip
Adductor muscles Pelvis Proximal faemur Adduct and medially rotate
thigh
Sartorius Ilium Proximal tibia Flexes thigh on hip

Quadriceps group Vasti: femur Tibial tuberosity via All extend knee; rectus femoris
(vastus medialis, patellar ligament also flexes hip on thigh
Rectus femoris: pelvis
intermedius, and Tibial tuberosity via
lateralis; and the patellar ligament
rectus femoris)
Tibialis anterior Proximal tibia First cuneiform (tarsal) and Dorsiflexes and inverts foot
first metatarsal of foot

Extensor digitorum Proximal tibia and fibula Distal toes 2–5 Extends toes
longus

Fibularis muscles Fibula Metatarsals of foot Plantar flex and evert foot

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Figure 6.20c Pelvic, Hip, and Thigh
Muscles of the Right Side of the Body

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Figure 6.20d Pelvic, Hip, and Thigh
Muscles of the Right Side of the Body

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Figure 6.21a Superficial Muscles of the
Right Leg

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Table 6.4 Superficial Posterior Muscles of the
Body (Some Forearm Muscles Also Shown)
(See Figure 6.23) (1 of 3)
Head/Neck/trunk/shoulder muscles

Name Origin Insertion Primary action(s)

Occipitalis Occipital and temporal bones Cranial aponeurosis Fixes aponeurosis and pulls
scalp posteriorly

Trapezius Occipital bone and all cervical Scapular spine and Raises, retracts, and rotates
and thoracic vertebrae clavicle scapula

Latissimus dorsi Lower spine and iliac crest Proximal humerus Extends and adducts humerus

Erector spinae* Iliac crests, ribs 3–12, and Ribs, thoracic and cervical Extends and laterally flexes
vertebrae vertebrae spine

Quadratus Iliac crest, lumbar fascia Transverse processes of Flexes spine laterally; extends
lumborum* upper lumbar vertebrae spine

Deltoid Scapular spine and clavicle Humerus (deltoid Abducts humerus

tuberosity)

*Erector spinae and quadratus lumborum are deep muscles (they are not shown in Figure 6.23; see Figure 6.18b).

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Figure 6.18a Muscles of the Posterior
Neck, Trunk, and Arm (1 of 2)

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Figure 6.18b Muscles of the Posterior
Neck, Trunk, and Arm

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Figure 6.19 The Fleshy Deltoid Muscle Is a Favored
Site for Administering Intramuscular Injections

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Muscles of Trunk, Shoulder, Arm

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A&P Flix™: Muscles That Act on the
Shoulder Joint and Humerus: An Overview

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A&P Flix™: Muscles of the Pectoral
Girdle (1 of 3)

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A&P Flix™: Muscles of the Pectoral
Girdle (2 of 3)

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A&P Flix™: Muscles of the Pectoral
Girdle (3 of 3)

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A&P Flix™: Muscles That Cross the
Glenohumeral Joint

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A&P Flix™: Movement at the
Glenohumeral Joint: An Overview

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Table 6.4 Superficial Posterior Muscles of the
Body (Some Forearm Muscles Also Shown)
(See Figure 6.23) (2 of 3)
Arm/forearm muscles

Name Origin Insertion Primary action(s)

Triceps brachii Shoulder girdle and proximal Olecranon process of ulna Extends elbow
humerus
Flexor carpi radialis Distal humerus Second and third Flexes wrist and abducts hand
metacarpals (see Figure 6.22)
Flexor carpi ulnaris Distal humerus and posterior Carpals of wrist and fifth Flexes wrist and adducts hand
ulna metacarpal
Flexor digitorum Distal humerus, ulna, and Middle phalanges of Flexes wrist and fingers
superficialis† radius second to fifth fingers
Extensor carpi Humerus Base of second and third Extends wrist and abducts
radialis metacarpals hand
Extensor digitorum Distal humerus Distal phalanges of second Extends fingers
to fifth fingers

†Although its name indicates that it is a superficial muscle, the flexor digitorum superficialis lies deep to the flexor carpi
radialis and is not visible in a superficial view.

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Figure 6.18a Muscles of the Posterior
Neck, Trunk, and Arm (2 of 2)

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Table 6.4 Superficial Posterior Muscles of the
Body (Some Forearm Muscles Also Shown) (See
Figure 6.23) (3 of 3)
Hip/thigh/leg muscles

Name Origin Insertion Primary action(s)

Gluteus maximus Sacrum and ilium Proximal femur (gluteal Extends hip (when forceful
tuberosity) extension is required)

Gluteus medius llium Proximal femur Abducts thigh; steadies pelvis

during walking

Hamstring muscles Ischial tuberosity Proximal tibia (head of Flex knee and extend hip
(biceps femoris, fibula in the case of biceps
semitendinosus, femoris)
semimembranosus)

Gastrocnemius Distal femur Calcaneus (heel via Plantar flexes foot and flexes
calcaneal tendon) knee

Soleus Proximal tibia and fibula Calcaneus Plantar flexes foot

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Figure 6.20 Pelvic, Hip, and Thigh
Muscles of the Right Side of the Body

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Figure 6.21b Superficial Muscles of the
Right Leg

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Figure 6.22 Major Superficial Muscles of
the Anterior Surface of the Body

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Figure 6.23 Major Superficial Muscles of
the Posterior Surface of the Body

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Developmental Aspects of the
Muscular System (1 of 3)
•  Increasing muscular control reflects the maturation of
the nervous system
•  Muscle control is achieved in a superior/inferior and
proximal/distal direction

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Developmental Aspects of the
Muscular System (2 of 3)
•  To remain healthy, muscles must be exercised regularly
•  Without exercise, muscles atrophy
•  With extremely vigorous exercise, muscles hypertrophy

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Developmental Aspects of the
Muscular System (3 of 3)
•  As we age, muscle mass decreases, and muscles
become more sinewy
•  Exercise helps retain muscle mass and strength

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Copyright

This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is

provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their
courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of
any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will
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Chapter 6
The Muscular System

The Muscular System

§ Muscles are responsible for all types of body movement
§ Three basic muscle types are found in the body
1. Skeletal muscle
2. Cardiac muscle
3. Smooth muscle

Muscle Types
§ Skeletal and smooth muscle cells are elongated (muscle cell = muscle fiber)
§ Contraction and shortening of muscles are due to the movement of microfilaments
§ All muscles share some terminology
o Prefixes myo- and mys- refer to “muscle”
o Prefix sarco- refers to “flesh”

Muscle Types
§ Skeletal muscle
o Most skeletal muscle fibers are attached by tendons to bones
o Skeletal muscle cells are large, cigar-shaped, and multinucleate
o Also known as striated muscle because of its obvious stripes
o Also known as voluntary muscle because it is the only muscle tissue subject to
conscious control

Muscle Types
§ Skeletal muscle cells are surrounded and bundled by connective tissue
o Endomysium—encloses a single muscle fiber
o Perimysium—wraps around a fascicle (bundle) of muscle fibers
o Epimysium—covers the entire skeletal muscle
o Fascia—on the outside of the epimysium

Muscle Types
§ The epimysium of skeletal muscle blends into a connective tissue attachment
o Tendons—cordlike structures
§ Mostly collagen fibers
§ Often cross a joint because of their toughness and small size
o Aponeuroses—sheetlike structures
§ Attach muscles indirectly to bones, cartilages, or connective tissue
coverings

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Muscle Types
§ Smooth muscle
o No striations
o Involuntary—no conscious control
o Found mainly in the walls of hollow visceral organs (such as stomach, urinary
bladder, respiratory passages)
o Spindle-shaped fibers that are uninucleate
o Contractions are slow and sustained

Muscle Types
§ Cardiac muscle
o Striations
o Involuntary
o Found only in the walls of the heart
o Uninucleate
o Branching cells joined by gap junctions called intercalated discs
o Contracts at a steady rate set by pacemaker

Muscle Functions
§ Whereas all muscle types produce movement, skeletal muscle has three other
important roles:
o Maintain posture and body position
o Stabilize joints
o Generate heat

Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle

§ Sarcolemma—specialized plasma membrane
§ Myofibrils—long organelles inside muscle cell
o Light (I) bands and dark (A) bands give the muscle its striated (banded)
appearance

Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle

§ Banding pattern of myofibrils
o I band = light band
§ Contains only thin filaments
§ Z disc is a midline interruption
o A band = dark band
§ Contains the entire length of the thick filaments
§ H zone is a lighter central area
§ M line is in center of H zone

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Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle
§ Sarcomere—contractile unit of a muscle fiber
o Structural and functional unit of skeletal muscle
§ Organization of the sarcomere
o Myofilaments produce banding (striped) pattern
§ Thick filaments = myosin filaments
§ Thin filaments = actin filaments

Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle

§ Thick filaments = myosin filaments
o Composed of the protein myosin
o Contain ATPase enzymes to split ATP to release energy for muscle
contractions
o Possess projections known as myosin heads
o Myosin heads are known as cross bridges when they link thick and thin
filaments during contraction

Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle

§ Thin filaments = actin filaments
o Composed of the contractile protein actin
o Actin is anchored to the Z disc
§ At rest, within the A band there is a zone that lacks actin filaments called the H zone
§ During contraction, H zones disappear as actin and myosin filaments overlap

Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle

§ Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
o Specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum
o Surrounds the myofibril
o Stores and releases calcium

Stimulation and Contraction of Single Skeletal Muscle Cells

§ Special functional properties of skeletal muscles
o Irritability (also called responsiveness)—ability to receive and respond to a
stimulus
o Contractility—ability to forcibly shorten when an adequate stimulus is received
o Extensibility—ability of muscle cells to be stretched
o Elasticity—ability to recoil and resume resting length after stretching

The Nerve Stimulus and Action Potential

§ Skeletal muscles must be stimulated by a motor neuron (nerve cell) to contract
§ Motor unit—one motor neuron and all the skeletal muscle cells stimulated by that
neuron

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The Nerve Stimulus and Action Potential
§ Neuromuscular junction
o Association site of axon terminal of the motor neuron and sarcolemma of a
muscle
§ Neurotransmitter
o Chemical released by nerve upon arrival of nerve impulse in the axon terminal
o Acetylcholine (ACh) is the neurotransmitter that stimulates skeletal muscle

The Nerve Stimulus and Action Potential

§ Synaptic cleft
o Gap between nerve and muscle filled with interstitial fluid
o Although very close, the nerve and muscle do not make contact

The Nerve Stimulus and Action Potential

§ When a nerve impulse reaches the axon terminal of the motor neuron,
Step 1: Calcium channels open, and calcium ions enter the axon terminal
Step 2: Calcium ion entry causes some synaptic vesicles to release
acetylcholine (ACh)
Step 3: ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft and attaches to receptors on the
sarcolemma of the muscle cell

The Nerve Stimulus and Action Potential

Step 4: If enough ACh is released, the sarcolemma becomes temporarily more
permeable to sodium ions (Na+)
o Potassium ions (K+) diffuse out of the cell
o More sodium ions enter than potassium ions leave
o Establishes an imbalance in which interior has more positive ions
(depolarization), thereby opening more Na+ channels

The Nerve Stimulus and Action Potential

Step 5: Depolarization opens more sodium channels that allow sodium ions to
enter the cell
o An action potential is created
o Once begun, the action potential is unstoppable
o Conducts the electrical impulse from one end of the cell to the other
Step 6: Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) breaks down acetylcholine into acetic acid
and choline
o AChE ends muscle contraction
o A single nerve impulse produces only one contraction

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The Nerve Stimulus and Action Potential
§ Cell returns to its resting state when:
1. Potassium ions (K+) diffuse out of the cell
2. Sodium-potassium pump moves sodium and potassium ions back to their
original positions

Mechanism of Muscle Contraction: The Sliding Filament Theory

§ What causes filaments to slide?
o Calcium ions (Ca2+) bind regulatory proteins on thin filaments and expose
myosin-binding sites, allowing the myosin heads on the thick filaments to
attach
o Each cross bridge pivots, causing the thin filaments to slide toward the center
of the sarcomere
o Contraction occurs, and the cell shortens
o During a contraction, a cross bridge attaches and detaches several times
o ATP provides the energy for the sliding process, which continues as long as
calcium ions are present

Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a Whole

§ Graded responses
o Muscle fiber contraction is “all-or-none,” meaning it will contract to its fullest
when stimulated adequately
o Within a whole skeletal muscle, not all fibers may be stimulated during the
same interval
o Different combinations of muscle fiber contractions may give differing
responses
o Graded responses—different degrees of skeletal muscle shortening

Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a Whole

§ Graded responses can be produced in two ways
o By changing the frequency of muscle stimulation
o By changing the number of muscle cells being stimulated at one time

Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a Whole

§ Muscle response to increasingly rapid stimulation
o Muscle twitch
§ Single, brief, jerky contraction
§ Not a normal muscle function

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Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a Whole
§ Muscle response to increasingly rapid stimulation (continued)
o In most types of muscle activity, nerve impulses are delivered at a rapid rate
o As a result, contractions are “summed” (added) together, and one contraction
is immediately followed by another

Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a Whole

§ Muscle response to increasingly rapid stimulation (continued)
o When stimulations become more frequent, muscle contractions get stronger
and smoother
o The muscle now exhibits unfused (incomplete) tetanus

Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a Whole

§ Muscle response to increasingly rapid stimulation (continued)
o Fused (complete) tetanus is achieved when the muscle is stimulated so rapidly
that no evidence of relaxation is seen
o Contractions are smooth and sustained

Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a Whole

§ Muscle response to stronger stimuli
o Muscle force depends upon the number of fibers stimulated
o Contraction of more fibers results in greater muscle tension
o When all motor units are active and stimulated, the muscle contraction is as
strong as it can get

Providing Energy for Muscle Contraction

§ ATP
o Only energy source that can be used to directly power muscle contraction
o Stored in muscle fibers in small amounts that are quickly used up
o After this initial time, other pathways must be utilized to produce ATP

Providing Energy for Muscle Contraction

§ Three pathways to regenerate ATP
1. Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate
2. Aerobic pathway
3. Anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid formation

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Providing Energy for Muscle Contraction
§ Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate (CP)—fastest
o Muscle cells store CP, a high-energy molecule
o After ATP is depleted, ADP remains
o CP transfers a phosphate group to ADP to regenerate ATP
o CP supplies are exhausted in less than 15 seconds
o 1 ATP is produced per CP molecule

Providing Energy for Muscle Contraction

§ Aerobic respiration
o Supplies ATP at rest and during light/moderate exercise
o A series of metabolic pathways, called oxidative phosphorylation, use oxygen
and occur in the mitochondria
o Glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy (about
32 ATP)
o This is a slower reaction that requires continuous delivery of oxygen and nutrients

Providing Energy for Muscle Contraction

§ Anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid formation
o Reaction that breaks down glucose without oxygen
o Glucose is broken down to pyruvic acid to produce about 2 ATP
o Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid, which causes muscle soreness
o This reaction is not as efficient, but it is fast
o Huge amounts of glucose are needed

Muscle Fatigue and Oxygen Deficit

§ If muscle activity is strenuous and prolonged, muscle fatigue occurs
§ Suspected factors that contribute to muscle fatigue include:
o Ion imbalances (Ca2+, K+)
o Oxygen deficit and lactic acid accumulation
o Decrease in energy (ATP) supply
§ After exercise, the oxygen deficit is repaid by rapid, deep breathing

Types of Muscle Contractions

§ Isotonic contractions
o Myofilaments are able to slide past each other during contractions
o The muscle shortens, and movement occurs
o Example: bending the knee; lifting weights, smiling
§ Isometric contractions
o Muscle filaments are trying to slide, but the muscle is pitted against an
immovable object
o Tension increases, but muscles do not shorten
o Example: pushing your palms together in front of you

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. 7

Muscle Tone
§ Muscle tone
o State of continuous partial contractions
o Result of different motor units being stimulated in a systematic way
o Muscle remains firm, healthy, and constantly ready for action

Effect of Exercise on Muscles

§ Exercise increases muscle size, strength, and endurance
o Aerobic (endurance) exercise (biking, jogging) results in stronger, more
flexible muscles with greater resistance to fatigue
§ Makes body metabolism more efficient
§ Improves digestion, coordination
o Resistance (isometric) exercise (weight lifting) increases muscle size and
strength
§ Individual muscle fibers enlarge

Muscle Movements, Roles, and Names

§ Follow the Five Golden Rules for understanding skeletal muscle activity (in Table 6.2,
shown next)

Types of Body Movements

§ Muscles are attached to no fewer than two points
1. Origin: attachment to an immovable or less movable bone
2. Insertion: attachment to a movable bone
§ When the muscle contracts, the insertion moves toward the origin
§ Body movement occurs when muscles contract across joints

Types of Body Movements

§ Flexion
o Decreases the angle of the joint
o Brings two bones closer together
o Typical of bending hinge joints (e.g., knee and elbow) or ball-and-socket joints
(e.g., the hip)
§ Extension
o Opposite of flexion
o Increases angle between two bones
o Typical of straightening the elbow or knee
o Extension beyond 180º is hyperextension

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Types of Body Movements
§ Rotation
o Movement of a bone around its longitudinal axis
o Common in ball-and-socket joints
o Example: moving the atlas around the dens of axis (i.e., shaking your head
“no”)

Types of Body Movements

§ Abduction
o Movement of a limb away from the midline
§ Adduction
o Opposite of abduction
o Movement of a limb toward the midline

Types of Body Movements

§ Circumduction
o Combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction
o Common in ball-and-socket joints
o Proximal end of bone is stationary, and distal end moves in a circle

Special Movements
§ Dorsiflexion
o Lifting the foot so that the superior surface approaches the shin (toward the
dorsum)
§ Plantar flexion
o Pointing the toes away from the head

Special Movements
§ Inversion
o Turning sole of foot medially
§ Eversion
o Turning sole of foot laterally

Special Movements
§ Supination
o Forearm rotates laterally so palm faces anteriorly
o Radius and ulna are parallel
§ Pronation
o Forearm rotates medially so palm faces posteriorly
o Radius and ulna cross each other like an X

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. 9

Special Movements
§ Opposition
o Moving the thumb to touch the tips of other fingers on the same hand

Interactions of Skeletal Muscles in the Body

§ Muscles can only pull as they contract—not push
§ In general, groups of muscles that produce opposite actions lie on opposite sides of a
joint

Interactions of Skeletal Muscles in the Body

§ Prime mover—muscle with the major responsibility for a certain movement
§ Antagonist—muscle that opposes or reverses a prime mover
§ Synergist—muscle that aids a prime mover in a movement or reduces undesirable
movements
§ Fixator—specialized synergists that hold a bone still or stabilize the origin of a prime
mover

Naming Skeletal Muscles

§ Muscles are named on the basis of several criteria
o By direction of muscle fibers
§ Example: rectus (straight)
o By relative size of the muscle
§ Example: maximus (largest)

Naming Skeletal Muscles

§ Muscles are named on the basis of several criteria (continued)
o By location of the muscle
§ Example: temporalis (temporal bone)
o By number of origins
§ Example: triceps (three heads)

Naming Skeletal Muscles

§ Muscles are named on the basis of several criteria (continued)
o By location of the muscle’s origin and insertion
§ Example: sterno (on the sternum)
o By shape of the muscle
§ Example: deltoid (triangular)
o By action of the muscle
§ Example: flexor and extensor (flexes or extends a bone)

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 Muscles of Trunk, Shoulder, Arm

Developmental Aspects of the Muscular System

§ Increasing muscular control reflects the maturation of the nervous system
§ Muscle control is achieved in a superior/inferior and proximal/distal direction

Developmental Aspects of the Muscular System

§ To remain healthy, muscles must be exercised regularly
§ Without exercise, muscles atrophy
§ With extremely vigorous exercise, muscles hypertrophy

Developmental Aspects of the Muscular System

§ As we age, muscle mass decreases, and muscles become more sinewy
§ Exercise helps retain muscle mass and strength

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. 11

Muscles names to remember. Please also study their origin, insertion and
function. Those charts are in the slides from the lecture

Head and Facial Muscles:
Frontalis
Orbicularis Oculi
Orbicularis Oris
Temporalis
Occipitalis
Masseter
Buccinator

Neck and Trunk Muscles:
Sternocleidomastoid
Trapezius
Pectoralis Major
Rectus abdominis
Internal Oblique
External Oblique
Transversus Abdominis

Upper Limb Muscles:
Deltoid
Biceps brachii
Triceps Brachii
Brachioradialis
Latissimus

Lower Limb muscles:
Gluteus medius
Gluteus maximus (overlies the large sciatic nerve)
Adductor Mucsles (just know where the adductor muscles are; don’t have to know
individual names)
Sartorius (longest muscle of the body)
Hamstring muscles
Rectus Femoris
Soleus
Gastrocnemius