FORENSIC

PHOTOGRAPH
Y
CHAPTER 3

CAMERA LENS
SIMEON, RITCHEL ANN

PABLO, NIÑA

REGALADO, MICHELLE

GROUP 1
RIVECENTE, ISAGANI JR

BOROMEO, CHRISTIAN FAITH

 • The invention of the camera in the early 19th
century led to an array of lens design
intended for photography. The problems of
Introduction: photographic lens design, creating a lens for
a task that would cover a large, flat image
plane, were well know even before the
invention of photography due to the
CAMERA LENS development of lenses to work with, the
focal plane of the camera

• A camera without a lens is useless to a

photographer.
 What is Camera Lens?
• A camera lens, also known as photographic
lens or photographic objective, is an optical
lens or assembly of lenses used in
conjunction with a camera body and
mechanism to make images of objects
either on photographic film or on other
media capable of storing an image
chemically or electronically.

• A lens might be permanently fixed to a

camera, or it might be interchangeable with
lenses of different focal lengths, apertures,
and other properties. While in principle a
simple convex lens will suffice, in practice, a
compound lens made up of a number of
optical lens elements is required to correct
( as much as possible) the many optical
aberrations that arise. Some aberrations will
be present in any lens system.
 History of Camera Lens
• The word lens comes from lēns ,the Latin name of “lentil,” because a double-convex lens is
lentil-shaped. The lentil plants also gives it’s name to a geometric figure. Some scholars
argue that the archeological evidence indicates that there was widespread use of lenses in
antiquity, spanning several millennia. The so – called, “Nimrud lens,” is a rock crystal
artifact dated to the 7th century BC which may or may not have been used as a magnifying
glass, or a burning glass . Others have suggest that certain Egyptian hieroglyphs depict
“simple glass meniscal lenses.”

• “The Clouds”- oldest certain reference to use of lenses is from Aristophanes play in 42 BC.

• Pleny the Elder (24 AD-79 AD) – during the 1st century confirmed that burning-glasses were
know in the Roman period, also had the earliest known reference to the use of a corrective
lens .

• Nero (37 AD-68 AD)- the gladiatorial games using an emerald, presumably concave lens to
correct for nearsightedness, though the reference is vague.
• Pliny and Seneca the Younger (3 BC- 65 AD)- described the magnifying effect of a glass
globe filled with water.

• Ptolemy (100 AD-282 BC ) – during the 2nd century wrote a book on Optics. Survived only in
the Latin translation of an incomplete and very poor Arabic translation.

• Ibn Sahl (40 AD-1000 AD) – in the 10th century, who was in turn improved upon by Alhazen or
Book of Optics, in 11th century

• Ptolemy’s Optics – Arabic translation, became available in Latin translation in the 12th
century by Eugenius of Palermo (1130- 1202) in 1154.

• Reading stones- were invented between the 11th and 13th century

• Plano- convex lenses- initially made by cutting glass sphere in half .

The medieval period, from 5th to 15th centuries rock crystal Visby lenses may or may not have
intended for use as burning glasses.
• Spectacle makers created improved types of lenses for the corrections of vision based more
on empirical knowledge gained from observing the effects of the lenses, probably without
the knowledge of the rudimentary optical theory of the day.

• With the invention of the telescope and microscope there was a great deal of
experimentation with lens shapes in the 17th and early 18th centuries by those trying to
correct chromatic errors seen in lenses.

• Optical theory on refraction and experimentation was showing no single element lens
could bring all colors to a focus.

• Compound achromatic lens – invention by Chester Moore Hall (1703-1717) in England in

1733, an invention also claimed by fellow Englishman John Dollond (1706-1761) in a 1758
patent.

• Daniel Barbaro (1541- 1570) introduced the use of the lens in the camera. He made a large
opening on his camera obscura and fitted into it a convex lens taken from the spectacles of
a far- sighted old man .
VARIED TYPES OF CAMERA LENS
 Positive Lens
• It is a convex lens, which is
characterized by the fact that it is
thicker at the middle than the edge and
formed a real image on the opposite
side of the lens .

• The distance from the lens to the focal

point is called focal length.

• It is also called convex lens , or a lens

that converges rays of light that are
traveling parallel to it’s principal axis .
They can be identified by their shape
which is relatively thick across the
middle and thin at the upper and lower
edges .
Negative Lens
• It is a concave lens , which is
characterized by the fact that it is
thinner at the middle than the
edge, then formed a virtual image
on the same side of the lens .

• It is also known as a diverging lens

because of it’s power to diverge
rays of light that passes through
it.

• If it is thinner at its center than it’s

edges, and it is called diverging
or having negative focal length.
MAIN GROUPS OF CAMERA LENS
 Simple Meniscus Lens

• This lens is usually found in a simple

or box camera. It is uncorrected and
therefore suffering from inherent
defects of lenses. Simple meniscus
lenses have one convex and one
concave surface with each surface
having it’s own radius or curvature.
It is used to minimize spherical
aberration.
 Rapid Rectilinear Lens
• It is a combination of two achromatic lenses
with almost the same focal length. This is
corrected from some kinds of lens defects but
not astigmatism defects.

• It is also named Aplanat , a famous

photographic lens design. It is a lens that is
symmetrical about its aperture stop with four
elements in two groups. It was introduced by
John Henry Dallmeyer (1830-1883) in 1866.
The symmetry of the design greatly reduces
radial distortion.
 Anastigmatic Lens
• This is a lens which is free from
astigmatism and other types of lens
defects. It has the ability to focus a
vertical and horizontal line at the same
time . Anastigmat or anastigmatic lens is
a photographic lens completely corrected
for the three main optical aberrations:
spherical aberration, coma , and
astigmatism,

• The first Anastigmat lens was designed

by Paul Rudolph (1858- 2945) for the Carl
Zeiss AG in 1890.
 Achromatic Lens
• This is a lens which is partly corrected
for chromatic aberration . An achromatic
lens is designed to limit the effects of
chromatic and spherical aberration.
Achromatic lenses are corrected to bring
two wavelengths, typically red and blue ,
to focus on the same plane, a lens which
is made by a combination of two
different types of lenses carrying
different focal powers in a manner such
that the images formed by the light of
both the combined lenses are free from
chromatic aberration or achromatism . It
is widely known as an “achromat.”
 Process Lens
• This is a super corrected lens for
astigmatism. It has a better color
correction and has the ability to
produce the best definition of
image in the photographs.
Process lenses are lenses which
are primarily designed for the
graphics. They are flat field
lenses which are optimized for 1-
1 reproduction. This lens is
primarily designed for the
graphics industry.
Fixed Focus Lens

This is used in all fixed camera.

Basically, it has a short focal length
and greater depth of field. A
photographic lens for which the
focus is not adjustable is called, as
a fixed focus lens or sometimes
focus- free. The focus is set at the
time of lens design, and remains
fixed.
 What is Pinhole Lens ?
• Pinhole Lens is a darkened room where the only
light source is a small hole or pinhole in one wall
and on the opposite wall appears an image of the
object outside, formed by the light rays coming
from the hole. The images it produces are district,
and unique in nature. It is then very apparent, that
to produce sharp or clear image in the photographs
, the circle of confusion must be very small as
possible. If the hole is so tiny, it requires a longer
exposure. To make the exposure short , a system of
light control is needed , which can only be
provided by the lens

• The image making ability of the pinhole had been

used in the camera obscura.
What is Lens Focal Length?
• Lens focal length is the distance measured
from the axis of the lens through the film
plane when the lens is focused at a distant
object. Actually, it determines the size of the
image that will be formed in the negatives .
The focal length of an optical system is a
measure of how strongly the system
converges or diverges light.

• In most photography and all telescopy ,

where the subject is essentially infinitely far
away, longer focal length, that is lower
optical power, leads to higher magnification
and a narrower length or higher optical
power is associated with lower magnification
and a wider angle view.
Classes of Lens Focal Length
 Wide Angle Lens
• This is lens with a focal length less
than the diagonal of the negative
materials. It has a shorter focal
length with large area converge .
This is useful in the
photographing of objects in a
narrow or restricted or small
area . This type of lens, the object
will appear far from the lens and
the resulting image of the object
in the negative will be small.
Normal or Standard Lens

• This is lens with a focal length

approximately equal but not
more than twice the length of
the diagonal of the negative
material. The angle of the view of
this lens is 75° but not less than
45°. This lens has the best area
of coverage and the resulting
image of the objects reproduced
will the same as seen by naked
eye . It reproduces a field of view
that appears “natural” to
observer.
 Telephoto Lens
• This is lens with focal length more than
twice the diagonal of the negative
material. It has a longer focal length
with small area of coverage. This is
useful in photographing objects at far
distances .

• A telephoto lens has a long reach ,

allowing to photograph a subject that is
far away or magnifying the subject in
the frame . Generally, the lens is
considered “telephoto” if it has a focal
length of 60mm or longer.
 Zoom Lens
• This lens has a variable focal
length which can be adjusted
continuously by the movement
of one or more elements in the
lens system, known as the
variable focus lens . Actually, this
lens carries with the different
classifications of lenses
according to it’s focal length. It is
a type of camera lens that offers
the photographer a useful range
of different focal lengths in a
single lens .
 Macro Lens
• This is used to take close-up photos ,
and it’s used is not actually what
defines it . It has the ability to focus
from infinity to 1:1 magnification,
meaning that the size of the image in
real life is the same size as it is
reproduced on the sensor.

• The magnification ratio tells how the

image projected on the camera’s sensor
compares with the subject's actual
size , so a lens with a ratio or 1:2 can
project an image on its sensor up to
half the size of the subject while a lens
with a 5:1 ratio can project an image
five times the size of the subject.
 Specialty Lens
• The simplest of terms, lenses that are
custom – designed for the unique shape
of each individual cornea. This is a special
customized lenses specifically designed
to solve problems such as : keratoconus,
pellucid marginal degeneration, injuries,
diseases, and congenital problems that
cause distortion of the cornea. Specialty
contact lenses are useful especially in
cases where, fitting a lens to suit the eye ,
or the needs of the patient is more
difficult than usual. One example of the
specialty lens is the scleral lens .
Types of Lens Aberration
Astigmatism
• It is the failure of lens to produce a point image of an object point . When
the lens surface is not balanced in shape or position with respect to the
principal axis of the lens, this aberration occurs. Decreasing the size of
the lens opening will minimize the astigmatism defects of the lens . This
occurs when the lens fails to focus image lines running in different
directions in the same plane , for example, picture of a rail fence .
 Spherical Aberration
• It is usually found in all lenses bound by spherical surface. It is the failure
of the lens to bring all rays of light in focus at the same time. The
marginal portion of the lens will bring the rays of light to a shorter focus
than the central region. The image point produced will not be a point but
a blur circle. Spherical aberration is the blurriness at the edge of an
image. Using a spherical lens on a camera causes light near the edge of
the lens, that is , farther from the optical axis, to converge closer to the
lens.
Chromatic Aberration

• It is the failure of the lens to focus all the visible rays . The lens refracts
rays of short wave length more strongly than those of longer wave length
and therefore, brings blue rays to a shorter focus than red. The resulting
image of a point white light is not a white point, but a blur circle bordered
with colors . It is also called chromatic distortion and “
spherochromatism “ a failure of a lens to focus all colors to the same
point.
Coma
• The unequal magnifying power of different concentric zones of the lens
causes this lens defect. It refers to aberration inherent to certain optical
design or due to imperfection in the lens or other components which
results in off- axis point sources such as starts appearing distorted,
appearing to have a tail , or coma , like a comet. It is also known as “
comatic aberration,” or a type of optical aberration that results in off-
axis points of light appearing comet- shaped. It is an aberration inherent
in certain optical designs.
Curvature of Field
• In this aberration, the relation of the images of the different points is
incorrect with respect to one another. The image on a flat subject does
not appear flat because of the sharpness of the center and the edge is out
of focus. Therefore, direct focusing of lens at the center will make the
edge blurred . In addition, in curvature, the image distances are different
for different points of the same objects , because of their different from
the axis of the lens . Fuzziness increases toward the edge of the film .
Distortion
• This lens defect exists when there is different magnification for rays of
light at different angles. A straight line extending across the lens is
curved, the curvature maybe inward or outward depending upon the
kinds of lenses used . When the curving is inward it is called a pincushion
distortion and when the curving is outward , it is called a barrel
distortion. It is a deviation from the ideal projection considered in
pinhole camera model, and an optical aberration in which straight lines in
the scene do not remain straight in an image.
curving is outward curving is inward
Theory of Lens Operation
• Typical rectilinear lenses can be thought of as “ improved” pinhole “lenses.” A pinhole
“lens” is simply a small aperture that blocks most rays of light, ideally selecting one
ray to the object for each point on the image sensor. Pinhole lenses have few severe
limitations as follows.

1. A pinhole camera with a large aperture is blurry because each pixel is essentially the
shadow of the aperture stop, so it’s size is no smaller than the size of the aperture.
Here a pixel is the area of the detector exposed to light from A point on the object.

2. Making the pinhole smaller improves resolution, up to a limits, but reduces the
amount of light captured.

3. At a certain point, shrinking the hole does not improve the resolution because of the
diffraction limit. Beyond this limit, making the hole smaller makes the image
blurrier as well as darker.
• The geometry is almost the same as with a simple pinhole lens , but rather than
being illuminated by single rays of light, each image point is illuminated by a
focused “pencil” of light rays . From the front of the camera, the small hole , the
aperture, would be seen. The virtual image of the aperture as seen from the world
is known as the lens’s entrance pupil. Ideally, all rays of light leaving a point on
the object that enter the entrance pupil will be focused to the same point on the
image sensor or film , provided the object point is in the field of view.
• Practical lens includes more lens elements. The additional elements allow lens
designers to reduce various aberrations , but the principle of operation remains
the same.
Aperture and Lens Focal Length
• The two fundamental parameters of an optical lens are maximum
aperture and the focal length. The aperture the light intensity of the
image and the lens focal length determine the magnification of the image
projected into the image plane . For a given photographic system, the focal
length determines the angle of view, short focal lengths giving a wider field
of view than longer focal length lenses. A wider aperture, identified by a
smaller f-number , allows using a faster shutter speed for the same
exposure.
• The camera equation, or G# , is the ratio of the radiance reaching the
camera sensor to the irradiance on the focal plane of the camera lens . The
maximum usable aperture of a lens is specified as the focal ratio or f-
number , defined as the lens’s focal length divided by the effective
aperture.
A lens may be classified
1. Normal Lens. The angle of view of the diagonal is about 50° and a focal length approximately
equal to the image diagonal.
2. Wide-Angel Lens. The angle of view is wider than 60° and the focal length is shorter than
normal.
3. Long-Focus Lens. These are any lens with a focal length longer than diagonal measure of the
film or sensor. Angle of the view is narrower. The most common type of Long-Focus lens is the
telephoto lens, a design that uses special optical configuration to make the lens shorter than it’s
focal length.

A side effect of using lenses of different focal lengths is the different distances from which a
subject can be framed, resulting in a different perspective. Photographs can be taken of a person
stretching out a hand with a wide-angle, a normal Lens, and a telephoto, which contain exactly
the same image size by changing the distance from the subject. But the perspective will be
different. With the wide-angle, the hands will be exaggeratedly large relative to the head. As the
focal length increases the emphasis on the outstretched hand decreases
Number of Lens Elements
• The complexity of a lens , the number of elements and their degree of
asphericity, depends upon angle of the view, the minimum aperture and
intended price point, among other variables. An extreme wide- angle lens
of large aperture must be of very complex construction to correct for
optical aberrations, which are worse at the edge of the field and when the
edge of a large lens is used for image-forming . A long focus lens of small
aperture can be of very simple construction to attain comparable image
quality, that is , a doublet or two elements, will often suffice . Some older
cameras were fitted with convertible lenses of normal focal length.
• The front element could be unscrewed, leaving a lens of twice the focal
length, and half the angle of the view and half the aperture. The simpler half
– lens was of adequate quality for the narrow angle of view and small
relative aperture.
• Tessar derived from the Greek “tessara,” meaning “four.” The widest- range
zooms often have fifteen or more .
• The reflection of light at each of the many interfaces between different
optical media seriously degraded the contrast and color saturation of early
lenses, particularly zoom lenses, especially where the lens was directly
illuminated by a light source. The introduction of optical coatings, and
advances in coating technology, have resulted in major improvements, and
modern high quality zoom lenses give images of quite acceptable contrast.
Construction of Camera Lens
• A camera lens may be made from a number of elements: from one as in the
Box Brownie’s meniscus lens , to over 20 in the more complex zooms . These
elements may themselves comprise a group of lenses cemented together. The
front element is critical to the performance of the whole assembly. In all
modern lenses the surface is coated to reduce abrasion , flare, and surface
reflectance aberration, the curvature is usually set so that the angle of
incidence and the angle of refraction are equal.
• The lens is usually focused by adjusting the distance from the lens assembly to
the image plane , or by moving elements of the lens assembly. To improve
performance, some lenses have a cam system that adjust the distance between
the group as the lens is focused. Manufacturers call this different thing: Nikon
calls it close range correction or CRC; Canon calls it a floating system or FS;
• Hasslblad and Mamiya Call it floating lens elements or FLE.
• Today , most lenses are multi-coated in order to minimize lens flare and
other unwanted effects . Some lenses have UV coating to keep out the
ultraviolet light that could taint color. In early camera models a rotating
plate or slider with different sized holes was used . These Waterhouse stops
may still be found in modern , specialized lenses. A shutter , to regulate the
time during which light may pass , may be incorporated with in the lens
assembly, within the camera , or even , rarely, in front of the lens. Some
cameras with leaf shutters in the lens omit the aperture, and the shutter
does double duty.