What is Thermionic Emission?

Thermionic emission is a phenomenon in which electrons are released from a heated material due
to the thermal energy overcoming the work function of the material. The work function is the
minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from the surface of a solid. Thermionic
emission is also known as thermal electron emission or the Edison effect, after Thomas Edison,
who first observed it in 1883.

Thermionic emission is the basis of many electronic devices, such as vacuum tubes, cathode-ray
tubes, electron microscopes, X-ray tubes, and thermionic converters. In this article, we will explain
the physics behind thermionic emission, the factors that affect its rate and current, the types of
materials and structures used for thermionic emitters, and some of the applications and examples
of thermionic emission in electronics and engineering.
What Causes Thermionic Emission?

To understand what causes thermionic emission, we need to recall some basic concepts of atomic
structure and energy levels. All materials are composed of atoms, which consist of a nucleus (made
of protons and neutrons) surrounded by electrons. The electrons are arranged in different shells or
orbit around the nucleus, depending on their energy. The electrons in the outermost shell are called
valence electrons, and they are responsible for most of the electrical and chemical properties of the
material.

When a material is heated, some of the thermal energy is transferred to the electrons, increasing
their kinetic energy. If the thermal energy is high enough, some of the valence electrons can
overcome the attractive force between them and the nucleus, and escape from the surface of the
material. This process is called thermionic emission, and the emitted electrons are called thermions
The amount of thermal energy needed to emit an electron depends on the work function of the
material, which is a measure of how tightly the electrons are bound to the material. Different
materials have different work functions, ranging from less than 1 eV (electron volt) for some alkali
metals to more than 5 eV for some transition metals. The lower the work function, the easier it is to
emit electrons from the material.

The rate of thermionic emission also depends on the temperature and surface area of the material.
The higher the temperature, the more thermal energy is available to excite the electrons. The larger
the surface area, the more electrons can escape from the material. Therefore, to increase the rate
of thermionic emission, we need to use materials with low work functions, high temperatures, and
large surface areas.
How Do We Measure Thermionic Emission?
The number of electrons emitted per unit time from a material is called the rate of thermionic
emission. This quantity can be expressed in terms of thermionic current, which is the electric
current generated by the flow of thermions. The thermionic current can be measured by placing
another electrode (called an anode) near the emitting electrode (called a cathode), and applying a
positive voltage to attract the emitted electrons
The relationship between thermionic current and temperature can be described by the Richardson-
Dushman equation, which is given by:

Where:

J is the thermionic current density (in A/m2), which is the current per unit area of the cathode
A is the Richardson constant which depends on the type of material
T is the absolute temperature (in K) of the cathode
ϕ is the work function (in eV) of the cathode
k is the Boltzmann constant (in eV/K), which is equal to 8.617 x 10-5 eV), and T is the absolute
temperature (in K) of the cathode.
The Richardson-Dushman equation shows that the thermionic current density increases
exponentially with temperature and decreases exponentially with the work function. The equation is
valid only for ideal conditions, such as a perfectly flat and clean cathode surface, a uniform
temperature distribution, and a negligible space charge effect. In reality, these conditions are rarely
met, and the actual thermionic current density may deviate from the theoretical value.
The choice of material and structure for a thermionic emitter depends on several factors, such as
the work function, the melting point, the mechanical strength, the surface area, and the emission
efficiency. The emission efficiency is defined as the ratio of the thermionic current to the heating
power input. A high emission efficiency means that less power is wasted in heating the cathode, and
more power is converted into thermionic current.

There are three main types of thermionic emitters: tungsten, thoriated tungsten, and oxide-coated
emitters. Each type has its own advantages and disadvantages, depending on the application and
operating conditions.
Tungsten Emitters
Tungsten emitters are made of pure tungsten metal or tungsten wire. Tungsten has a high melting
point (3650 K), a high mechanical strength (100000 – 500000 psi at room temperature), and a low
vapor pressure. These properties make tungsten suitable for high-temperature and high-voltage
applications, such as X-ray tubes and electron microscopes.

However, tungsten also has a high work function (4.52 eV), which means that it requires a high
temperature (2327 °C) to emit electrons. This results in a low emission efficiency (4 mA/W) and a
short lifetime due to evaporation and contamination of the cathode surface. Moreover, tungsten
emitters have a low surface area, which limits the maximum thermionic current that can be
obtained.
Thoriated Tungsten Emitters
Thoriated tungsten emitters are made of tungsten alloyed with a small amount of thorium (1-2%).
Thorium is a radioactive element that has a lower work function (3.4 eV) than tungsten. When
thorium is mixed with tungsten, it forms a thin layer of thorium oxide on the surface of the cathode,
which reduces the effective work function to 2.63 eV. This allows thoriated tungsten emitters to
operate at a lower temperature (1700 °C) than pure tungsten emitters, and to have a higher
emission efficiency (20 mA/W).

Thoriated tungsten emitters also have a longer lifetime than pure tungsten emitters, because
thorium oxide acts as a protective layer that prevents evaporation and contamination of the cathode
surface. However, thoriated tungsten emitters still have a low surface area, which limits the
maximum thermionic current that can be obtained. Moreover, thoriated tungsten emitters pose a
health hazard due to their radioactivity and toxicity.
Oxide-Coated Emitters
Oxide-coated emitters are made of nickel ribbons or tubes coated with barium oxide and
strontium oxide. These oxides have very low work functions (1.1 eV), which enable oxide-
coated emitters to operate at a very low temperature (750 °C) compared to other types of
emitters. This results in a very high emission efficiency (200 mA/W) and a long lifetime due
to reduced evaporation and contamination of the cathode surface.

Oxide-coated emitters also have a high surface area, which allows them to produce high
thermionic currents. However, oxide-coated emitters are fragile and sensitive to
mechanical shocks and vibrations. They also require careful handling and storage to
prevent damage or deterioration of the oxide coating.
What are the Applications of Thermionic Emission?
Thermionic emission has many applications in electronics and engineering, especially in devices
that use vacuum tubes or electron beams. Some of examples of thermionic emission applications
are:

Vacuum tubes: Vacuum tubes are devices that use thermionic emission to control the flow of
electric current in a vacuum. They consist of a cathode, an anode, and one or more electrodes
called grids that control the current between the cathode and the anode. Vacuum tubes can be used
as amplifiers, oscillators, switches, rectifiers, and modulators of electric signals. Vacuum tubes were
widely used in radio, television, radar, computers, and other electronic devices before the invention
of transistors.
Diode valves: Diode valves are vacuum tubes that have only two electrodes: a cathode and an
anode. They allow an electric current to flow only in one direction, from the cathode to the anode.
They can be used as rectifiers to convert alternating current into direct current, or as detectors to
demodulate radio signals.
Cathode ray tubes: Cathode ray tubes are vacuum tubes that use thermionic emission to produce a
beam of electrons that can be deflected by electric or magnetic fields. They can be used to create
images on a phosphorescent screen, such as in television sets, computer monitors, oscilloscopes,
and radar displays.
Electron tubes: Electron tubes are vacuum tubes that use thermionic emission to generate or
accelerate electron beams for various purposes. They can be used as electron guns for electron
microscopes, X-ray tubes for X-ray generation, klystrons for microwave amplification, magnetrons
for microwave generation, and traveling wave tubes for high-frequency amplification.
Electron microscopes: Electron microscopes are devices that use electron beams to magnify and
image objects at very high resolutions. They use thermionic emitters to produce electron beams
that are focused by magnetic lenses and scanned over the sample. The electrons interact with the
sample and produce signals that can be detected and displayed on a screen or recorded on a film.
Electron microscopes can reveal details of the structure and composition of matter at nanometer
scales.
X-ray tubes: X-ray tubes are devices that use electron beams to generate X-rays for medical
imaging, industrial inspection, security screening, and scientific research. They use thermionic
emitters to produce electron beams that are accelerated by high voltages and directed at a metal
target called an anode. The electrons collide with the atoms of the anode and produce X-rays by
bremsstrahlung (braking radiation) or characteristic radiation. The X-rays can be filtered and
collimated to form a beam that can penetrate matter and produce images of its internal structure.
Thermionic converters: Thermionic converters are devices that use thermionic emissions to convert
heat into electricity. They consist of two electrodes: a hot cathode and a cold anode separated by a
vacuum or a gas-filled gap. The cathode emits electrons due to its high temperature, while the
anode collects them due to its lower temperature. The difference in temperature creates a potential
difference between the electrodes, which drives an electric current through an external circuit.
Thermionic converters can be used as power sources for spacecraft, nuclear reactors, solar panels,
and waste heat recovery systems.
Electrodynamic tethers: Electrodynamic tethers are long conductive wires that can be used to
generate electricity or propulsion in space. They use thermionic emitters at one end to emit
electrons into space, creating a current along the tether. The tether interacts with the Earth’s
magnetic field and produces a Lorentz force that can either generate electricity or change the orbit
of a spacecraft. They use thermionic emitters at one end to emit electrons into space, creating a
current along the tether. The tether interacts with the Earth’s magnetic field and produces a Lorentz
force that can either generate electricity or change the orbit of a spacecraft.