Purva Mimamsa and

Vedanta
Jaimini sutras
 Jaimini is said to the be author of the original
Mimamsa sutras dating back to 400 B.C. Their
main purpose was to inquire into the nature of duty
or dharma.
 In addition to this, we find discussions about
sounds, words and meaning.
 Unlike Nyaya, it lists six methods of knowledge:
direct perception (pratyaksa), inference (anumana),
analogy (upamana), verbal testimony (sabda),
hypothesis (arthapatti), and knowledge by negation
(abhava). The first four we have seen in Nyaya.
 Hypothesis is the basis of the scientific method. A
hypothesis is made on the ground that something
already observed would have been impossible
without that hypothesis.
Poincaré on hypothesis
 “Science is built up of facts, as a house is built up of stones; but
an accumulation of facts is no more a science than a heap of
stones is a house. Most important of all, the man of science must
exhibit foresight … It is that which enables us to predict, and to
generalize. Without generalization, prediction is impossible …
Detached facts cannot therefore satisfy us, and that is why our
science must be ordered, or better still, generalized … Thus by
generalization, every fact observed enables us to predict a large
number of others … Every generalization is a hypothesis.”
The nature of hypothesis
 The hypothesis cannot be arbitrary. It must
be corroborated by experience. The relative
certainty of the hypothesis is derived from the
fact that the observed phenomenon cannot
be explained otherwise, at least for the time
being. So we make only a “working
hypothesis.”
 All scientific theories are working hypotheses.
Their virtue lies in their power of explanation
and power of prediction.
The method of negation or abhava
 “Both what is seen and what is not seen must be
taken together.” - Jaimini
 If something is not seen, that too indicates
knowledge.
 “The non-operation of the five means of cognition is
… what brings about the cognition that “it does not
exist” … that is, in case where sense perception and
other means of cognition are not found to be
operative towards bringing about the notion of the
existence of a certain thing, we have the notion of
the non-existence of that thing; and the means by
which this notion is brought about is called abhava.
Sruti and smriti
 Sruti means revelation and smriti refers to social custom. The
former is a universal law whereas the latter is a man-made law or
convention.
 “Sruti is more authoritative than smriti. When there is a conflict
between sruti and smriti, the smriti should be disregarded.”
 Vivekananda explains this as follows. “In plain words, we have
to distinguish between essentials and non-essentials in
everything. The essentials are eternal and non-essentials have
value only for a certain time, and if after a time they are not
replaced by something essential, they are positively dangerous.”
 One should distinguish between social laws and universal laws
and should not confuse the two.
Vedanta of Badarayana
 The Vedanta sutras or Brahma sutras were written down by
Badarayana between 500 B.C. and 200 B.C.
 The 555 sutras are often terse and over the centuries, many
commentaries have been written on them, notable being those of
Shankara (788-820 A.D.), Ramanuja (11th century) and Madhva
(1197-1276).
The meaning of “vedanta”

 The word vedanta can be split into two: veda

and anta and literally means “end of the
Vedas”.
 This word should be taken to mean the
distilling of the philosophy of the Vedas and
the Upanishads into its essential
components.
 Shankara builds upon Gaudapada’s
commentary of the Mandukya Upanishad.
Shankara and advaita (non-dualism)
 In his commentary, Shankara begins by asking if
there is anything in our experience that we can be
certain of.
 This echoes the question of Descartes and Russell.
 Shankara begins by saying “Our senses may deceive
us; our memory may be an illusion. The forms of the
world may be pure fancy. The objects of knowledge
may be open to doubt, but the doubter himself cannot
be doubted. … It cannot be proved because it is the
basis of all proof. The self is self-established and is
different from all else, physical and mental. As the
subject, it is not the object. … It is undifferentiated
consciousness, which remains unaffected even when
the body is reduced to ashes and the mind perishes.”
Atman and Brahman
 Shankara explains that the eternal Self is the Atman
and the universal Self is Brahman.
 “The world is bound up by the categories of space,
time and cause. These are not self-contained or
self-consistent. They point to something unalterable
and absolute . . Brahman is different from the
space-time-cause world … The empirical world
cannot exist by itself. It is wholly dependent on
Brahman … but Brahman depends on nothing.
Ignorance affects our whole empirical being. It is
another name for finitude. To remove ignorance is
to realize the truth. .. While absolute truth is
Brahman, empirical truth is not false.”
The dream and the dreamer
 The dream depends on the dreamer for its
existence. But the dreamer does not depend on the
dream.
 The dream is real along as the dreamer is dreaming.
But not so when the dreamer awakes from the
dream. Just as there is a difference in the level of
awareness between the dream and awakening, so
also is the chasm between the waking state and the
enlightened state.
 This is Shankara’s famous mayavada, or the
doctrine of illusion. It is often misunderstood as the
statement “the world is unreal.”
 Saguna and Nirguna Brahman
 The highest representation of Brahman through logical categories is
Isvara or Saguna Brahman, or qualified Brahman, described in the
Patanajali Yoga Sutras.
 Nirguna Brahman (or Brahman without qualities) transcends this and is
the basis of the phenomenal world.
 Building on Gaudapada, Shankara writes, “As one dreaming person is
not affected by illusory visions of his dream because they do not
accompany him in the waking state, so the one permanent witness of
the three states is not touched by the mutually exclusive three states.
For that the highest Self appears in those three states is a mere
illusion, not more substantial than the snake for which the rope is
mistaken in the twilight. The existence of the rope is not dependent on
the appearance of the snake but the appearance of the snake is
dependent on the rope. So also, the world is dependent on Brahman
but Brahman is not dependent upon the world.”
The example of the thorn
 If a thorn is stuck in one’s foot, we take
another thorn and carefully remove it and
then discard both thorns. We don’t keep one
as a souvenir.
 Similarly, “this doctrine of the individual self
having its Self in Brahman … does awaywith
the independent existence of the individual
self, just as the idea of the rope does away
with the idea of the snake (for which the rope
has been mistaken).”
All that exists is Brahman
 With impeccable logic, Shankara asserts all that exists is
Brahman. The substance of all experience is Brahman.
 How does he arrive at this? Vivekananda explains. “Let us
examine our perceptions. I see a blackboard. How does that
knowledge come? What the German philosophers call “the thing
in itself” of the blackboard is unknown. I can never know it. Let
us call it x.”
 “The blackboard x acts on my mind and the mind reacts. The
mind is like a lake. Throw a stone in a lake and a reactionary
wave comes toward the stone which strikes the mind and the
mind throws a wave towards it and this wave is what we call the
blackboard.”
 “I see you. You as reality are unknown and unknowable. You
are x and you act on my mind and the mind throws a wave that I
call Mr. So and So.”
 “There are two elements in the
perception, one coming from outside
and the other from inside and the
combination of these two, x + mind,
is our external universe. All
knowledge is by reaction.”
 “The real Self within me is also
unknown and unknowable. Let us
call it y. When I know myself as so
and so, it is y + mind. That y strikes
a blow on the mind. So our whole
world is x + mind (external) and y
+mind (internal), x and y standing for
the thing in itself behind the external
and internal worlds.”
x=y
 “x and y are both unknown and unknowable. All difference is
due to time, space and causation. These are the constituent
elements of the mind. No mentality is possible without them.
You can never think without time, you can never imagine without
space and you can never have anything without causation.
These are forms of the mind.”
 Take them away and the mind itself does not exist. According to
Vedanta, it is the mind, its forms that have limited x and y
apparently and made them appear as external and internal
worlds. But x and y being both beyond the mind, are without
difference and hence one. We cannot attribute any quality to
them, because qualities are born of the mind.”
 “That which is quality-less must be one; x is without qualities, it
only takes qualities of the mind. So does y; therefore these x
and y are one.”
The matrix of associations
 When we try to understand when we say “we know”, we see that
it is more or less classification and arrangement.
 The mind is a network of associations and whatever we meet or
perceive, we try to pigeonhole the perception. The process of
pigeonholing is what gives rise to the feeling “I know”.
 Knowledge arises from arranging facts, from the relationship
between ideas. What we mean by a proof is a sequence of
logical implications beginning with axioms that have been
assumed without question.
 Explanation only means this. We relate it to what has been
known before or what has been deduced before. We associate it
with past impressions.
 When it comes to existential questions, the mind is baffled by the
very questions and it cannot answer them. In the sense above,
these questions are unanswerable.
Vivekananda explains
 “If knowledge means finding associations, then it must be that to know
anything we have to see the whole series of its similarities… Suppose
you take a pebble; to find the association, you have to see the whole
series of pebbles similar to it.”
 “But with our perception of the universe as a whole, we cannot do that,
because in the pigeonhole of our mind, there is only one single record
of the perception; we have no other perception of the same nature or
class; we cannot compare it with any other. We cannot refer to its
associations.”
 “This bit of the universe, cut off by our consciousness, is a startling new
thing, because we have not been able to find its associations. … It is
only when we find its associations that the universe will stand
explained.”
 “Until we can do that, all the knocking of our heads against a wall will
never explain the universe, because knowledge is the finding of
similarities and this conscious plane only gives us one single perception
of it.”
The role of reason
 This does not mean we abandon reason. We must
take reason as far as it can go. When that is done,
Vedanta says, reason is transcended. But until
then, we must rely on reason.
 Shankara’s advaita is deep and profound. Its
insistence on rational thought and reason
degenerated over the centuries into linguistic
wrangling. Thus in the 11th century, Ramanuja
derived a form of “qualified” advaita known as
visishtadvaita.
Ramanuja’s objections to Shankara
 There is no proof of a non-differentiated substance.
According to Ramanuja, differentiation is the only
thing perceived.
 Consciousness and Brahman are not identical.
Rather, consciousness is an attribute of Brahman.
Since the mind can only understand symbols and
images, there is no point discussing the abstract
that is beyond mind.
 Therefore, Ramanuja gave his “qualified” view of the
Brahman of the Upanishads.
Brahman, atman and jagat (world)

 For Ramanuja, Brahman, atman and jagat

are different and eternal. At the same time,
they are inseparable.
 “Inseparability is not identity. Brahman is
related to the other two as soul is to body.
The three together form an organic whole.”
 Ramakrishna explains

 In a conversation with Vivekananda, Ramakrishna explains this as

follows.
 “According to this theory, Brahman or the Absolute, is qualified by the
universe and its living beings. These three, Brahman, the world, and
living beings, together constitute One. Take the instance of a
pumpkin. A man wanted to know the weight of it. You cannot get the
weight by weighing only the flesh. You must weigh the flesh, the
shell, and the seeds together. At first, it appears the important thing is
the flesh not its seeds or shell.”
 “By reasoning, you find that the shell, seeds, and flesh all belong to
the pumpkin. Likewise, in spiritual discrimination, one must first
reason, following the method of “not this, not this”. Brahman is not the
universe, it is not the living beings … Then one realizes as with the
pumpkin that the Reality from which we derive the notion of Brahman
is the very Reality that evolves the idea of living beings and the
universe. The absolute and manifestation are two aspects of one and
the same Reality. Brahman is qualified by the universe and living
beings. This is the theory of qualified non-dualism.”
Madhva’s dvaita or dualism
 In the 13th century, Madhva builds upon Ramanuja’s
system with one major change.
 He rejects the interdependence of the three ideas,
Brahman, atman and jagat. They are simply
independent and eternal.
 Thus, it is quite natural that a dualistic philosophy of
“God and the world” emerges from such a view.
 He emphasizes the emotional component of the
psycho-physical being and advocates bhakti, or
devotion to raise one’s awareness.
Vivekananda comments on bhakti
 “The one great advantage of bhakti is that it is the
easiest and most natural way to reach the divine end
in view; its’ great disadvantage is that in its lower
forms, it degenerates into hideous fanaticism. All
the weak and undeveloped minds in every religion or
country have only one way of loving their own ideal,
that is by hating every other ideal. … The same
man who is kind, good, honest and loving to people
of his own opinion, will not hesitate to do the vilest
deeds when they are directed against persons
beyond the pale of his own religious brotherhood.”
 However, this danger, Vivekananda says is in the
early stages. “When the bhakti has become ripe,
and has passed into the form called supreme or
para-bhakti, no more is there any fear of those
hideous manifestations of fanaticism.”
 Thus, if one is aware of this danger, one can use
bhakti to raise one’s level of awareness.
Knowledge by identity
 Aurobindo writes, “In reality, all experience is in its
secret nature knowledge by identity; but its true
character is hidden from us because we have
separated ourselves from the rest of the world by
exclusion, by the distinction of our self as subject
and everything else as object, and we are
compelled to develop processes and organs by
which we may again enter into communion with all
that we have excluded. We have to replace direct
knowledge through conscious identity by an indirect
knowledge which appears to be caused by physical
contact and mental sympathy. This limitation is a
fundamental creation of the ego.”
The underlying view of Vedanta

 No single view or system can encompass the cosmos and

manifold experiences of the human psyche. It must be admitted
that mind is in evolution.
 Vedanta begins with the premise that there is something deeper
than what is perceived either by the senses or the mind. But the
way to discover this is through the mind. The “book” we must
learn to read is our own mind.
 As a scientist uses the reasoning faculty combined with intuition,
so also the seeker after knowledge must combine both.
 Vedanta is not a system, but rather a psychic journey. It is a
journey of the mind. Just as science is not a finished system but
is evolving, so also Vedanta represents the spiritual knowledge
in evolution.
Radhakrishnan on meditation
 “Meditation is the way to self-
discovery. By it, we turn our mind
homeward and establish contact with
the creative center. To know the
truth, we have to deepen ourselves
and not merely widen the surface.
Silence and quiet are necessary for
the profound alternation of our being
and they are not easy in our age.”
 “What is called tapas is a persistent
endeavor … It is a gathering up of all
dispersed energies, the intellectual
powers, the heart’s emotions, the vital
desires, nay, the very physical being
itself and concentrating them all on
the supreme goal. The rapidity of the
process depends on the intensity of
the aspiration, the zeal of the mind.”