Solved Examples

2- Calculate the nominal or theoretical

ultimate moment strength of the beam
section shown in figure, if fy = 60,000 psi
and fc/ = 3000 psi?
 Solved Examples
Mn = ? & fy = 60,000 psi & fc/ = 3000 psi.
 Structural Safety
The structural safety of a reinforced
concrete structure can be calculated with
two methods:
The first method involves calculations of
the stresses caused by the working or
service loads and their comparison with
certain allowable stresses. Usually the
safety factor against collapse when the
working-stress method was used was said
to equal the smaller of fc/ /fc or fy / /fs .
 Structural Safety
The second approach to structural safety is the
one used in strength design in which uncertainty
is considered. The working loads are multiplied
by certain load factors that are larger than 1. The
resulting larger or factored loads are used for
designing the structure. The values of the load
factors vary depending on the type and
combination of the loads. To accurately estimate
the ultimate strength of a structure, it is
necessary to take into account the uncertainties
in material strengths, dimensions, and
workmanship.
 Structural Safety
This is done by multiplying the theoretical
ultimate strength of each member by the
strength reduction factor, φ, which is less than
1. These values generally vary from 0.90 for
bending down to 0.65 for some columns. In
summary, the strength design approach to
safety is to select a member whose computed
ultimate load capacity multiplied by its
strength reduction factor will at least equal the
sum of the service loads multiplied by their
respective load factors.
 Derivation of Beam Expressions
Tests of reinforced concrete beams confirm
that strains vary in proportion to distances
from the neutral axis even on the tension
sides and even near ultimate loads.
Compression stresses vary approximately
in a straight line until the maximum stress
equals about 0.50fc/. This is not the case,
however, after stresses go higher. When the
ultimate load is reached, the strain and
stress variations are approximately as
shown in figure.
Derivation of Beam Expressions
 Derivation of Beam Expressions
The compressive stresses vary from zero at
the neutral axis to a maximum value at or
near the extreme fiber. The actual stress
variation and the actual location of the
neutral axis vary somewhat from beam to
beam, depending on such variables as the
magnitude and history of past loadings,
shrinkage and creep of the concrete, size
and spacing of tension cracks, speed of
loading, and so on.
 Derivation of Beam Expressions
If the shape of the stress diagram were the same
for every beam, it would be possible to derive a
single rational set of expressions for flexural
behavior. Because of these stress variations,
however, it is necessary to base the strength
design on a combination of theory and test
results. Although the actual stress distribution
given in figure (b) may seem to be important, in
practice any assumed shape (rectangular,
parabolic, trapezoidal, etc.) can be used if the
resulting equations compare favorably with test
results.
Derivation of Beam Expressions
 Derivation of Beam Expressions
The most common shapes proposed are the
rectangle, parabola, and trapezoid, with the
rectangular shape used in this text as shown
in figure (c) being the most common one. If
the concrete is assumed to crush at a strain
of about 0.003 and the steel to yield at fy, it
is possible to make a reasonable derivation
of beam formulas without knowing the
exact stress distribution. However, it is
necessary to know the value of the total
compression force and its centroid.
 Derivation of Beam Expressions
Whitney replaced the curved stress block at
figure (b) with an equivalent rectangular
block of intensity 0.85fc/ and depth α = β1c,
as shown in figure (c). The area of this
rectangular block should equal that of the
curved stress block, and the centroids of the
two blocks should coincide. Sufficient test
results are available for concrete beams to
provide the depths of the equivalent
rectangular stress blocks. The values of β1
given by the code (10.2.7.3) are intended to
give this result.
 Derivation of Beam Expressions
For fc/ values of 4000psi or less, β1 = 0.85,
and it is to be reduced continuously at a
rate of 0.05 for each 1000psi increase in fc/
above 4000 psi. Their value may not be less
than 0.65. The values of β1 are reduced for
high-strength concretes primarily because
of the shapes of their stress–strain curves.
For concretes with fc/ > 4000 psi, β1 can be
determined with the following formula:
 Derivation of Beam Expressions
Based on these assumptions regarding the
stress block, statics equations can easily be
written for the sum of the horizontal forces
and for the resisting moment produced by
the internal couple. These expressions can
then be solved separately for a and for the
moment, Mn. For writing the beam
expressions, reference is made to figure.
Equating the horizontal forces C and T and
solving for a, we obtain:
 Derivation of Beam Expressions
Because the reinforcing steel is limited to an amount such that it
will yield well before the concrete reaches its ultimate strength,
the value of the nominal moment, Mn, can be written as:

and the usable flexural strength is:

 Derivation of Beam Expressions
If we substitute into this expression the
value previously obtained for a (it was
ρfyd/0.85fc/), replace As with ρbd, and equate
φMn to Mu, we obtain the following
expression:
 Derivation of Beam Expressions
Replacing As with ρbd and letting Rn =
Mu/φbd2, we can solve this expression for ρ
(the percentage of steel required for a
particular beam) with the following results:

Instead of substituting into this equation for ρ

when rectangular sections are involved, Tables
A.8 to A.13 in Appendix A of this text will be
quite convenient. Another way to obtain the
same information is to refer to Graph 1 in
Appendix A.
 Strain in Flexural Members
The code states that the strains in concrete
members and their reinforcement are to be
assumed to vary directly with distances
from their neutral axes. Also, it states that
the maximum usable strain in the extreme
compression fibers of a flexural member is
to be 0.003. Finally, for Grade 60,
reinforcement we may set the strain in the
steel equal to 0.002 at the balanced
condition. A value was derived for a, the
depth of the equivalent stress block of a
beam.
 Solved Examples
Determine the values of a, c, and t for the beam shown in
figure if fy = 60,000 psi and fc = 3000 psi?
This value of strain is much greater than the yield strain of
0.002. This is an indication of ductile behavior of the beam,
because the steel is well into its yield plateau before concrete
crushes.