Unit 1

Fundamentals of DC circuits
Basic Definitions
• Voltage is the difference in charge between two points.
• Current is the rate at which charge is flowing.
• Resistance is a material's tendency to resist the flow of charge (current).
• Energy is defined as the amount of work that can be performed by force,
whereas power is defined as the rate at which work is performed.
Resistance
• Resistance (also known as ohmic resistance or electrical resistance) is a
measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit.
• Resistance is measured in ohms, symbolized by the Greek letter omega (Ω).
• When a voltage is applied across a substance, there will be an electric current
through it. The applied voltage across the substance is directly proportional to the
current through it. The constant of proportionality is resistance. Hence resistance
is defined as the ratio of applied voltage to the current through the substance.
Ohm’s Law
 Given by Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854), a German physicist
 finding the relationship between current and voltage for a resistor. This
relationship is known as Ohm’s law.
• Statement: Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly
proportional to the current i flowing through the resistor.
• Mathematically,

This is the mathematical form of Ohm’s law

• R is measured in the unit of ohms
• V is the Potential Difference between two ends of the conductor (in
Volts)
• I=Current flowing through the conductor (in Ampere)
• The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of
electric current; it is measured in ohms ( )
• 1 = 1 V/1A
Applications of Ohm’s Law
• 1. To find unknown Voltage (V)
• 2. To Find unknown Resistance (R)
• 3. To Find unknown Current (I)
• 4. Can be used to find Unknown Conductance (G)=1/R
• 5. Can be used to find unknown Power (P)=VI
• 6. Can be used to find unknown conductivity or Resistivity
DISADVANTAGES
• Ohm’s law is not applicable if temperature of conductor is changing.
• Ohm’s law is not applicable to non-linear elements.
 For Example
• Q.1 An electric iron draws 2 A at 120 V. Find its resistance.
• Solution:

• Q.2 The essential component of a toaster is an electrical element (a

resistor) that converts electrical energy to heat energy. How much
current is drawn by a toaster with resistance 15 ohm at 110 V?
Solution:
Nodes, Branches, and Loops
• BRANCH: A branch represents a single element such as a
voltage source or a resistor.
• NODE: A node is the point of connection between two or more
branches.
• LOOP: A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
Kirchhoff’s Laws
• First introduced in 1847 by the German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

• Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents
entering or exiting a node (or a closed boundary) is zero.
• Mathematically, KCL implies that
 Sign Convention for KCL:
Entering Current: Taken as +ve
Leaving Current: Taken as -ve

The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the node.
Example for KCL
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all
voltages around a closed path (or loop) is zero.
• mathematically, KVL states that
Example-1 for KVL
Example-2 for KVL

Equivalent Circuit
Sum of voltage rises=Sum of voltage drops
Example-3 for KVL
For the circuit in Fig.1(a), find voltages v1 and v2.
Note: Resistors in series behave as a single resistor whose resistance is equal to the sum of the
resistances of the individual resistors.
Resistors in Parallel
The equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to the product
of their resistances divided by their sum.
How to find Equivalent Resistance for Series-Parallel Combinations
BATTERY VOLTAGE IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
Voltage Division Rule
• The voltage division rule states that the voltage across any of the
series components in a series circuit is equal to the product of value
of that resistance and the total supply voltage, divided by the total
resistance of the series circuit.
• A series circuit is act as a voltage divider.
Note: This rule can be generalized for any number of resistors in series
Solution for Figure 4:
Current Division Rule
• The current division rule states that the current in any of the parallel
branches of a parallel circuit is equal to the ratio of opposite branch
resistance to the sum of all resistances, multiplied by the total
current.
• A parallel circuit is act as current divider.
Numerical Problem for Current Division Rule

I1=13.33, I2=6.67
• Ans:
Practice Problem to find Equivalent Resistance
Example: To find Req
 Inductor
An inductor is a passive electronic component designed to store energy in
the form of a magnetic field. It is often represented by the symbol "L" in
circuit diagrams. Inductors are commonly used in electronic circuits for
various purposes, including energy storage, filtering, impedance matching,
and signal processing
Inductance
• Inductance is the property of inductor to oppose the flow of current. The flux is
produced in the inductor is directly proportional to current flow through
it. Inductor works under AC power source; it creates short circuit path to
the DC power source.
• The induced emf across a coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of
current through it. The proportionality constant in that relation is known as
inductance.

• The total or equivalent inductance will be given by the equation

Inductors
• Generally - coil of conducting wire
• Usually wrapped around a solid core. If no core is used, then the inductor is
said to have an ‘air core’.

http://bzupages.com/f231/energy-stored-inductor-uzma-noreen-group6-part2-1464/
Capacitor

• A capacitor is a two-terminal electrical device that can store energy in

the form of an electric charge. It consists of two electrical conductors
that are separated by a distance. The space between the conductors
may be filled by vacuum or with an insulating material known as a
dielectric.
• The capacitance C of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the
maximum charge Q that can be stored in a capacitor to the applied
voltage V across its plates. In other words, capacitance is the largest
amount of charge per volt that can be stored on the device.
Capacitor
• The capacitance is the charge gets stored in a capacitor for developing 1 volt
potential difference across it. Hence, there is a direct relationship between the
charge and voltage of a capacitor. The charge accumulated in the capacitor is
directly proportional to the voltage developed across the capacitor.
Capacitance

• Capacitance
• Ability to store electrical energy in an electrostatic field
• Basic unit is the farad (F)
• Represented by letter C
• Capacitor
• Possesses a specific amount of capacitance
• Either fixed or variable
Capacitance (cont’d.)

Figure 11-1. A capacitor consists of two plates (conductors)

separated by a dielectric (insulator or nonconductor).
Dielectric

• A dielectric material (dielectric for short) is an electrical insulator that

can be polarized by an applied electric field. When a dielectric is
placed in an electric field, electric charges do not flow through the
material as they do in a conductor
Capacitors

• Factors that affect capacitance

• Area of the plate
• Distance between the plates
• Type of dielectric material
• Temperature
Capacitors (cont’d.)

Figure 11-5. Ceramic disk capacitors.

Capacitors (cont’d.)

• Total capacitance in series circuits:

• Total capacitance in parallel circuits:

INDEPENDENT SOURCES
• Independent source is a source that is not dependent on any other
variable in the circuit. They are two-terminal devices with a constant
value, which means that the voltage across the two terminals remains
constant under all circuit conditions.
• When the strength of voltage or current is unaffected by changes in
the connected network, the source is referred to as an independent
voltage or current source. The voltage or current value is fixed in this
case and cannot be changed.
• Regardless of the other components in the circuit, an ideal
independent source maintains the same voltage or current.
 For example, a 1 volt source will maintain 1 volt between its terminals regardless of the size of
resistor connected to it.
DEPENDENT SOURCES
• Dependent or controlled sources are sources which have an output
voltage or current that is not fixed and is dependent on the voltage or
current in another section of the circuit.
• Dependent sources occur when the value of voltage or current varies
in the source as a result of a change in the associated network. A
diamond shape represents the dependent sources.
Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS)
Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS)
Current Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS)
Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS)
DEPENDENT OR CONTROLLED SOURCES
Ideal and non ideal (Practical) energy
sources