Fundamental circuit

CH. 1
 Basic Concepts/ Backgrounds

 Charge
 Current
 Voltage
 Circuit Element
 Power and Energy
 Ideal sources
 Learning Objectives

By using the information and exercises in this chapter you will be able
to:
1. Understand the different units with which engineers work.
2. Understand the relationship between charge and current and
how to use both in a variety of applications.
3. Understand voltage and how it can be used in a variety of
applications.
4. Develop an understanding of power and energy and their
relationship with current and voltage.
5. Begin to understand the volt-amp characteristics of a variety of
circuit elements.
6. Begin to understand an organized approach to problem solving
and how it can be used to assist in your efforts to solve circuit
problems.
 1. Introduction
• Electric circuit theory and electromagnetic theory are
the two fundamental theories upon which all branches
of electrical engineering are built.
• Many branches of electrical engineering, such as power,
electric machines, control, electronics, communications,
and instrumentation, are based on electric circuit
theory.
• Therefore, the basic electric circuit theory course is the
most important course for an electrical engineering
student, and always an excellent starting point for a
beginning student in electrical engineering education.
 Cont.
• In electrical engineering, we are often interested in
communicating or transferring energy from one point
to another.
• To do this requires an interconnection of electrical
devices.
• Such interconnection is referred to as an electric
circuit, and each component of the circuit is known
as an element.
 An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical
elements.
 Cont.

A simple electric circuit is shown

in Fig. 1.1.
It consists of three basic elements:
 a battery,
a lamp, and
connecting wires.
Such a simple circuit can exist by
itself; it has several applications,
such as a flash- light, a search light,
and so forth.
 Cont.
• A complicated real circuit is displayed in Fig. 1.2,
representing the schematic diagram for a radio receiver.
• Although it seems complicated, this circuit can be
analyzed using the techniques we cover in later chapter.
• Electric circuits are used in numerous electrical systems
to accomplish different tasks.
• Our major concern is the analysis of the circuits.
• By the analysis of a circuit, we mean a study of the
behavior of the circuit:
– How does it respond to a given input?
– How do the interconnected elements and devices in the circuit
interact?
Cont.
Cont.
 Cont.

• We commence our study by defining some

basic concepts.
• These concepts include charge, current,
voltage, circuit elements, power, and energy.
• Before defining these concepts, we must first
establish a system of units that we will use
throughout the text.
 2. Systems of Units
• As electrical engineers, we deal with measurable
quantities.
• Our measurement, however, must be communicated in a
standard language that virtually all professionals can
understand, irrespective of the country where the
measurement is conducted.
• Such an international measurement language is the
International System of Units (SI), adopted by the General
Conference on Weights and Measures in 1960.
• One great advantage of the SI unit is that it uses pre-fixes
based on the power of 10 to relate larger and smaller
units to the basic unit.
 3. Charge and Current
• The concept of electric charge is the underlying
principle for explaining all electrical phenomena.
• Also, the most basic quantity in an electric circuit is
the electric charge.
• Charge is an electrical property of the atomic
particles of which matter consists, measured in
coulombs (C).
• We know from elementary physics that all matter is
made of fundamental building blocks known as
atoms and that each atom consists of electrons,
protons, and neutrons.
Cont.
 4. Flow of electric charges.
• A unique feature of electric charge or electricity is the fact that
it is mobile; that is, it can be transferred from one place to
another, where it can be converted to another form of energy.
• When a conducting wire (consisting of several atoms) is
connected to a battery (a source of electromotive force), the
charges are compelled to move; positive charges move in one
direction while negative charges move in the opposite
direction.
• This motion of charges creates electric current.
• It is conventional to take the current flow as the movement of
positive charges.
• That is, opposite to the flow of negative charges, as Fig. 1.3
illustrates.
 Cont.
• A convention is a standard way of describing something so
that others in the profession can understand what we mean.
• We will be using IEEE conventions throughout this course.
 Cont.
• Although we now know that current in metallic
conductors is due to negatively charged electrons,
we will follow the universally accepted convention
that current is the net flow of positive charges.
Thus,
• Electric current is the time rate of change of charge,
measured in amperes (A).
• The way we define current as i in Eq. (1.1) suggests
that current need not be a constant-valued function.
Cont.
 Cont.
 There can be several types of current; that is, charge can vary
with time in several ways.
 If the current does not change with time, but remains constant,
we call it a direct current (dc).
– A direct current (dc) is a current that remains constant with time.
 By convention the symbol I is used to represent such a
constant current.
 A time-varying current is represented by the symbol i.
 A common form of time-varying current is the sinusoidal
current or alternating current (ac).
 An alternating current (ac) is a current that varies sinusoidally
with time.
Cont.
 Cont.
• Once we define current as the movement of charge, we
expect current to have an associated direction of flow.
• As mentioned earlier, the direction of current flow is
conventionally taken as the direction of positive
charge movement.
• Based on this convention, a current of 5 A may be
represented positively or negatively as shown in Fig.
1.5.
• In other words, a negative current of -5A flowing in
one direction as shown in Fig. 1.5(b) is the same as a
current of +5A flowing in the opposite direction.
 5. Voltage
• To move the electron in a conductor in a particular
direction requires some work or energy transfer.
• This work is performed by an external electromotive
force (emf), typically represented by the battery in
Fig. 1.3.
• This emf is also known as voltage or potential
difference.
• The voltage Vab between two points a and b in an
electric circuit is the energy (or work) needed to
move a unit charge from a to b;
 Cont.
Mathematically,

Where w is energy in joules (J) and q is charge in coulombs (C).

The voltage or simply v is measured in volts (V), named in honor

of the Italian physicist Alessandro Antonio Volta (1745–1827), who
invented the first voltaic battery.
From Eq. (1.3), it is evident that
1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb = 1 newton-meter/coulomb
Thus,
Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a
unit charge through an element, measured in volts (V).
 Cont.
Figure 1.6 shows the voltage across an element (represented
by a rectangular block) connected to points a and b.
The plus and minus signs are used to define reference
direction or voltage polarity.
The vab can be interpreted in two ways:
(1) point a is at a potential of vab volts higher than
point b, or
(2) the potential at point a with respect to point b is
vab .
It follows logically that in general
 Cont.

 For example, in Fig. 1.7, we have two representations of the same

voltage.
 In Fig. 1.7(a), point a is +9V above point b;
 In Fig. 1.7(b), point b is -9V above point a.
 We may say that in Fig. 1.7(a), there is a 9-V voltage drop from a
to b or equivalently a 9-V voltage rise from b to a.
 In other words, a voltage drop from a to b is equivalent to a voltage
rise from b to a.
 Cont.
• Current and voltage are the two basic variables in electric
circuits.
• The common term signal is used for an electric quantity such
as a current or a voltage (or even electromagnetic wave) when
it is used for conveying information.
• Like electric current,
– a constant voltage is called a dc voltage and is represented by V,
– whereas a sinusoidally time-varying voltage is called an ac voltage
and is represented by v.
• A dc voltage is commonly produced by a battery; ac voltage
is produced by an electric generator.
• Keep in mind that
– electric current is always through an element and that electric voltage
is always across the element or between two points.
 6. Power and Energy
• Although current and voltage are the two basic variables in an
electric circuit, they are not sufficient by themselves.
• For practical purposes, we need to know how much power an
electric device can handle.
– We all know from experience that a 100-watt bulb gives more light
than a 60-watt bulb.
• We also know that when we pay our bills to the electric utility
companies, we are paying for the electric energy consumed
over a certain period of time.
• Thus, power and energy calculations are important in circuit
analysis.
 Cont.
• To relate power and energy to voltage and current, we
recall from physics that:
– Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy,
measured in watts (W).
• The power p in Eq. (1.7) is a time-varying quantity
and is called the instantaneous power.
• Thus, the power absorbed or supplied by an element
is the product of
– the voltage across the element and the current through it.
Cont.
Cont.
 Cont.
• If the power has a + sign,
– power is being delivered to or absorbed by the element.
• If, on the other hand, the power has a - sign,
• power is being supplied by the element.
• But how do we know when the power has a negative or a
positive sign?
• Current direction and voltage polarity play a major role in
determining the sign of power.
• It is therefore important that we pay attention to the
relationship between current i and voltage v in Fig. 1.8(a).
• The voltage polarity and current direction must conform with
those shown in Fig. 1.8(a) in order for the power to have a
positive sign.
• This is known as the passive sign convention.
Cont.
 Cont.
• By the passive sign convention,
– current enters through the positive polarity of the voltage.
• In this case, P = +vi or vi > 0 implies that the element is
absorbing power.
• However, if P= -vi or vi < 0 , as in Fig. 1.8(b), the
element is releasing or supplying power.
• Passive sign convention is satisfied
– when the current enters through the positive terminal of an
element and p= + vi.
– If the current enters through the negative terminal, p= - vi.
 Cont.
• Unless otherwise stated,
– we will follow the passive sign convention throughout this course.
• For example, the element in both circuits of Fig. 1.9 has an
absorbing power of +12 W
– because a positive current enters the positive terminal in both
cases.
• In Fig. 1.10, however, the element is supplying power of -
12W
– because a positive current enters the negative terminal.
• Of course, an absorbing power of -12 W is equivalent to a
supplying power of +12 W.
• In general,
– +Power absorbed = -Power supplied
 Cont.
• In fact, the law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in
any electric circuit.
• For this reason, the algebraic sum of power in a circuit, at
any instant of time, must be zero: Σp=0 (1.8)
• This again confirms the fact that the total power supplied to
the circuit must balance the total power absorbed.
• From Eq. (1.6), the energy absorbed or supplied by an element
from time to time t is

• Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).

 The electric power utility companies measure energy in watt-
hours (Wh),
 where 1 Wh = 3,600 J
 7. Circuit Elements
• An element is the basic building block of a circuit.
• An electric circuit is simply an interconnection of the
elements.
• Circuit analysis is the process of determining voltages
across (or the currents through) the elements of the
circuit.
• There are two types of elements found in electric
circuits:
– passive elements and active elements.
• An active element is capable of generating energy
while a passive element is not.
 Cont.
• Examples of passive elements are resistors,
capacitors, and inductors.
• Typical active elements include generators,
batteries, and operational amplifiers.
• The most important active elements are voltage
or current sources that generally deliver power
to the circuit connected to them.
• There are two kinds of sources:
– independent and dependent sources.
 8. An ideal independent source

 is an active element that provides a specified voltage or

current that is completely independent of other circuit
elements.
 In other words, it delivers to the circuit whatever current
is necessary to maintain its terminal voltage.
 Physical sources such as batteries and generators may be
regarded as approximations to ideal voltage sources.
• Similarly, an ideal independent current source is an
active element that provides a specified current
completely independent of the voltage across the source.
• That is, the current source delivers to the circuit whatever
voltage is necessary to maintain the designated current.
Symbols for Independent Sources
9. An ideal dependent (or controlled) source
• is an active element in which the source quantity is
controlled by another voltage or current.
• Dependent sources are usually designated by
diamond-shaped symbols, as shown in Fig. 1.13.
• Since the control of the dependent source is achieved
by a voltage or current of some other element in the
circuit,
– and the source can be voltage or current, it follows that
there are four possible types of dependent sources,
namely:
1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).
 Cont.
2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).
3. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
4. A current-controlled current source (CCCS).
 Dependent sources are useful in modeling elements
such as transistors, operational amplifiers, and
integrated circuits.
 The key idea to keep in mind is that a voltage source
comes with polarities (+ −) in its symbol, while a
current source comes with an arrow, irrespective of
what it depends on.
Symbols of dependent sources
 An example of a current-controlled voltage source is shown on
the right-hand side of Fig. 1.14,

• Where the voltage 10i of the voltage source depends on the

current i through element C.
• Students might be surprised that the value of the dependent
voltage source is 10i V (and not 10i A) because it is a voltage
source.
 Cont.
• It should be noted that an ideal voltage source (dependent or
independent) will produce any current
– required to ensure that the terminal voltage is as stated,
• whereas an ideal current source will produce the necessary
voltage
– to ensure the stated current flow.
• Thus, an ideal source could in theory supply an infinite amount
of energy.
– It should also be noted that not only do sources supply power to a
circuit, they can absorb power from a circuit too.
• For a voltage source, we know the voltage but not the current
supplied or drawn by it.
• By the same token, we know the current supplied by a current
source but not the voltage across it.
 10. Applications
• In this section, we will consider two practical
applications of the concepts developed in this
chapter.
• The first one deals with the TV picture tube
and the other with how electric utilities
determine your electric bill.
 10.1. TV Picture Tube
• One important application of the motion of electrons is
found
– in both the transmission and reception of TV signals.
• At the transmission end, a TV camera reduces a scene
(sight, view, picture) from an optical image
– to an electrical signal.
• Scanning is accomplished with a thin beam of electrons
in an iconoscope camera tube.
• At the receiving end, the image is reconstructed by using
a cathode-ray tube (CRT) located in the TV receiver.
CRT
 Cont.
• Unlike the iconoscope tube, which produces an
electron beam of constant intensity, the CRT beam
varies in intensity according to the incoming signal.
• The electron gun, maintained at a high potential,
fires the electron beam.
• The beam passes through two sets of plates for
vertical and horizontal deflections so that the spot on
the screen where the beam strikes can move right
and left and up and down.
• When the electron beam strikes the fluorescent
screen, it gives off light at that spot. Thus, the beam
can be made to “paint” a picture on the TV screen.
 10.2. .Electricity Bills

• The second application deals with

– how an electric utility company charges their customers.
• The cost of electricity depends upon the amount of energy
consumed in kilowatt-hours (kWh).
– (Other factors that affect the cost include demand and power factors;
we will ignore these for now.)
• However, even if a consumer uses no energy at all,
– there is a minimum service charge the customer must pay because it
costs money to stay connected to the power line.
• As energy consumption increases,
– the cost per kWh drops.
• It is interesting to note the average monthly consumption of
household appliances for a family of five, shown in Table 1.3.
Cont.
 11. Problem Solving
• Although the problems to be solved during
one’s career will vary in complexity and
magnitude,
– the basic principles to be followed remain the same.
• The process outlined here is the one developed
by the authors over many years of problem
solving with students,
– for the solution of engineering problems in industry,
and for problem solving in research.
 Cont.
We will list the steps simply and then elaborate on them.
1. Carefully define the problem.
2. Present everything you know about the problem.
3. Establish a set of alternative solutions and determine
the one that promises the greatest likelihood of
success.
4. Attempt a problem solution.
5. Evaluate the solution and check for accuracy.
6. Has the problem been solved satisfactorily? If so,
present the solution; if not, then return to step 3 and
continue through the process again.
 Summary
1. An electric circuit consists of electrical elements connected
together.
2. The International System of Units (SI) is the international
measurement language, which enables engineers to
communicate their results. From the seven principal units, the
units of other physical quantities can be derived.
3. Current is the rate of charge flow past a given point in a given
direction.

4. Voltage is the energy required to move 1 C of charge from a

reference point (−) to another point (+).
 Cont.

5. Power is the energy supplied or absorbed per unit time. It is also the product
of voltage and current.

6. According to the passive sign convention, power assumes a positive sign

when the current enters the positive polarity of the voltage across an element.
7. An ideal voltage source produces a specific potential difference across its
terminals regardless of what is connected to it.
An ideal current source produces a specific current through its terminals
regardless of what is connected to it.
8. Voltage and current sources can be dependent or independent.
A dependent source is one whose value depends on some other circuit
variable.
9. Two areas of application of the concepts covered in this chapter are the TV
picture tube and electricity billing procedure.