Electrical Circuit Analysis

Resistance
Chapter 2

Resistance
Resistance
The flow of charge through any material
encounters an opposing force similar in
many respects to mechanical friction. The
collision of electrons with the ions of the
material converts electrical energy to heat.
The opposition to the current is called
resistance. The unit of measurement
of resistance is the ohm, for which the
symbol is , the capital
Greek letter omega.
The resistance of any material with uniform
cross-sectional area is determined by the
following four factors:
1. Type of material
2. Length
3. Cross-sectional area
4. Temperature
Conductors that permit a generous flow of charge with
little external pressure will have low resistance, while
insulators will have high resistance.
As one might expect, the longer the path the charge
must pass through, the higher the resistance, and the
larger the area, the lower the resistance. Resistance is
thus directly proportional to length and inversely
proportional to area.
For most conductors, as the temperature increases, the
increased motion of the ions within the molecular
structure makes it increasingly difficult for the free
electrons to pass through, and the resistance increases.
RESISTANCE: METRIC
UNITS
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
Temperature has a significant effect on the
resistance of conductors, semiconductors,
and insulators.
Conductors
for good conductors, an increase in
temperature will result in an increase in
the resistance level. As a result,
conductors have a positive temperature
coefficient.
Semiconductors
for semiconductor materials, an increase in
temperature will result in a decrease in the
resistance level. As a result,
semiconductors have negative temperature
coefficients
Insulators
As with semiconductors, an increase in
temperature will result in a decrease in the
resistance of an insulator. The result is a
negative temperature coefficient.
Inferred Absolute
Temperature
the resistance increases almost linearly (in a straight-
line relationship) with an increase in temperature.
Since temperature can have such a strong effect on the
resistance of a conductor
Temperature Coefficient of
Resistance
 the higher the temperature coefficient of
resistance for a material, the more sensitive the
resistance level to changes in temperature.

For resistors, as for conductors, resistance changes with a change in

temperature. The specification is normally provided in parts per million
per degree Celsius (PPM/°C).

where Rnominal is the nameplate value of the resistor at room

temperature and DT is the change in temperature from the reference
level of 20°C.
TYPES OF RESISTORS
Fixed Resistors
Resistors are made in many forms, but all
belong in either of two groups: fixed or
variable. The most common of the low-
wattage, fixed type resistors is the thin
film carbon resistor. The basic
construction is
Resistors of this type are readily available
in values ranging from 2.7 to 22 M.
Variable Resistors
Variable resistors, as the name suggests,
have a terminal resistance that can be
varied by turning a dial, knob, or screw.
They can have two or three terminals, but
most have three terminals. If the two- or
three terminal device is used as a variable
resistor, it is usually referred to as a
rheostat. If the three-terminal device is
used for controlling potential levels, it is
then commonly called a potentiometer.
 Rheostats and Potentiometers
 Rheostats and potentiometers are variable resistances
used to vary the amount of current or voltage in a circuit.
◦ Rheostats:
 Two terminals.
 Connected in series with the load and the voltage
source.
 Varies the current.

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 Rheostats and Potentiometers
◦ Potentiometers:
 Three terminals.
 Ends connected across the voltage source.
 Third variable arm taps off part of the voltage.

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Rheostats and Potentiometers

Rheostats are two-terminal devices.

Wiper arm

Wiping contact

Fixed contact

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 Rheostats and Potentiometers
Using a Rheostat to Control Current Flow
◦ The rheostat must have a wattage rating high enough for
the maximum I when R is minimum.

Fig. 2-17: Rheostat connected in series circuit to vary the current I. Symbol for the current meter
is A, for amperes. (a) Wiring diagram with digital meter for I. (b) Schematic diagram.
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Rheostats and Potentiometers
 Potentiometers

◦ Potentiometers are three-

terminal devices.
◦ The applied V is input to the
two end terminals of the
potentiometer.
◦ The variable V is output
between the variable arm and
an end terminal.

Fig. 2-18: Potentiometer connected across voltage

source to function as a voltage divider. (a) Wiring
diagram. (b) Schematic diagram.
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COLOUR CODING AND STANDARD
RESISTOR VALUES
a system of colour coding is used. For the
fixed carbon film resistor, four or five
colour bands are printed on one end of the
outer casing
 Resistor Color Codes

Band color Digit Multiplier

Black 0 X1
Brown 1 X10
Color Tolerance Red 2 X100
Brown ±1% Orange 3 X1000
Yellow 4 X10000
Red ±2%
Green 5 X100000
Gold ±5% Blue 6 X1000000
Silver ±10% Purple 7 X10000000
Grey 8 X100000000
None ±20%
White 9 X1000000000
Silver - x.01
Gold - x.1
 Resistor Color Coding
 Resistor Color Code Color Code

0 Black
1 Brown
2 Red
3 Orange
4 Yellow
5 Green
6 Blue
7 Violet
8 Gray
Fig. 2-8: How to read color stripes on
carbon resistors for R in ohms. 9 White
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Resistor Color Coding
 Applying the Color Gold = 5%
Code
◦ The amount by 5% of 4700 = 235
which the actual R 4700 - 235 = 4465
Yellow = 4
can differ from the
4700 + 235 = 4935
color-coded value is
its tolerance. Violet = 7

Tolerance is usually Red = 2

stated in
The actual value can range from 4465 to 4935 .
percentages.

00
47700 is the nominal value.
Resistor Color Coding
 Five-Band Color Code
◦ Precision resistors often use a
five-band code to obtain more
accurate R values.
◦ The first three stripes indicate the
first 3 digits in the R value.
◦ The fourth stripe is the multiplier.
◦ The tolerance is given by the fifth
stripe.
 Brown = 1% Fig. 2-10: Five-band code.
 Red = 2%
 Green = 0.5%
 Blue = 0.25%
 Violet = 0.1%.

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Problem 2-6
 Using the four-band code, indicate the
colors of the bands for each of the
following resistors: Color Code

a) 110 Ω ± 1% 0 Black
1 Brown
b) 34 kΩ ± 0.5% 2 Red
Tolerance
Brown = 1%
3 Orange
Red = 2% 4 Yellow
Green = 0.5%
Blue = 0.25% 5 Green
Violet = 0.1%.
6 Blue
7 Violet
8 Gray
9 White
OHMMETERS
1. Measure the resistance of individual or combined elements
2. Detect open-circuit (high-resistance) and short-circuit
(lowresistance) situations
3. Check continuity of network connections and identify
wires of a multilead cable
  Thermistors:

◦ Thermistors are temperature-

sensitive resistors whose resistance
value changes with changes in
operating temperature.
◦ Used in electronic circuits where
temperature measurement, control,
and compensation are desired.

Fig. 2-7b: Typical thermistor shapes and sizes.

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CONDUCTANCE
 Resistor Applications

 Resistors are used for:

◦ Limiting current in electric circuits.

◦ Lowering voltage levels in electric circuits (using voltage divider).

◦ As current provider.

◦ As a sensor (e.g., photoresistor detects light condition, thermistor

detects temperature condition, strain gauge detects load condition,
etc.)

◦ In electronic circuits, resistors are used as pull-up and pull-down

elements to avoid floating signal levels.
Tutorial 1
Problem 1
What is the resistance of a copper wire 200
ft long and 0.01 in. in diameter
(T 20°C)?
Problem 2
The resistance of a copper wire is 2 Ω 10°C. What is
its resistance at 60°C?
Problem 3
The resistance of an aluminum bus-bar is 0.02 Ω 0°C.
What is its resistance at 100°C?
Problem 4
Problem 5
Find the conductance of each of the
following resistances:
a. 0.086
b. 4 k
c. 2.2 M