Electronic Principles

Number systems.
Decimal
• Decimal number system is base (radix) 10.
• Therefore has 10 different digits.
• 3586.265
• 3586 = 6×100 +8×101+5×102 +3×103 = 6+80+500+3000 = 3586
• The fractional part.
• 265 = 2×10−1+6×10−2 +5×10−3 = 0.2+0.06+0.005 = 0.265
Binary
• Binary number system is base -2 with ‘0’ and ‘1’ as the two
independent digits.
• Bit is an abbreviation of the term ‘binary digit’ and the smallest unit
of information.
• A byte is a string of eight bits, and is the basic unit of data.
• We also have computer word
Binary Addition and Subtraction
• Rules for addition • Rules for subtraction
• 0+0=0 • 0–0=0
• 0+1=1 • 1–0=1
• 1+0=1 • 0 – 1 = 1 (with a borrow of 1)
• 1 + 1 = 0 (with a carry of 1) • 1–1=0
Binary Multiplication and Division

• Rules for multiplication • Rules for division

• 0x0=0 •0/1=0
• 0x1=0 • 1/ 1=1
• 1x0=0
• 1x1=1
Octal
• The octal number system has a radix of 8.
• All higher numbers are expressed as a combination of these on the
same pattern.
• 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,20 and 21

• If we omit all the numbers containing 8 and 9 in the decimal system

we have the octal system.
Hexadecimal
• The hexadecimal number system is a radix-16 number system.
• 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E and F
• The decimal equivalent of A,B,C,D,E and F are 10,11,12,13,14 and 15.
• The place values or weights of different digits in a mixed hexadecimal
number are 160,161,162
• the hexadecimal ns provides a condensed way of representing large
binary numbers stored and processed inside the computer.
• 65 536 different addresses can be expressed with four digits from
0000 to FFFF.
Binary to decimal conversion
• The decimal equivalent of the binary number (1001.0101)2
• The integer part
• 1 × 20 + 0 × 21 + 0 × 22 + 1 × 23 = 1 + 0 + 0 + 8 = 9
• The decimal part
• 0 × 2−1 + 1 × 2−2 + 0 × 2−3 + 1 × 2−4 = 0 + 0.25 + 0+ 0.0625 = 0.3125
• The decimal equivalent becomes = 9.3125
Octal-to-Decimal conversion
• Decimal equivalent of the octal number (137.21)8
• 7 × 80 + 3 × 81 + 1 × 82 = 7 + 24 + 64 = 95
• 2 × 8−1 + 1 × 8−2 = 0.265
• Therefore the answer is = 95.265
Hexadecimal-to-decimal
• The decimal equivalent to the hexadecimal number (1E0.2A)
• Integer part= 1E0
• 0 × 160 + 14 × 161 + 1 × 162 = 0 + 224 + 256 = 480
• The fractional part =2A
• 2 × 16−1 + 10 × 16−2 = 0.164
Decimal-to-binary conversion
• Divide the integer part by 2 and recording the remainders until the
quotient becomes ’0’.

• For the fractional part, it is found by successively multiplying the

fractional part of the decimal number by 2 and recording the carry
until the result of multiplication is ‘0’.
 DECIMAL TO BINARY
CONVERSION
Divide by 2 Process

Decimal # 13 ÷ 2 = 6 remainder 1

6 ÷ 2 = 3 remainder 0

3 ÷ 2 = 1 remainder 1

1 ÷ 2 = 0 remainder 1

1 1 0 1
• Fractional part = .375
• 0.375*2=0.75 with a carry 0
• 0.75*2=0.5 with a carry of 1
• 0.5*2= 0 with a carry of 1
• Therefore (0.375)10=(.011)2
Decimal-to-octal conversion
• The progressive division in this case of the integer part and the
progressive multiplication of the fractional part are by ‘8’.

• Find the octal equivalent of (73.75)10

• Divisor Dividend Remainder
•8 73 —
•8 9 1
•8 1 1
•— 0 1

• 0.75*8=0 with a carry of 6

• The octal equivalent of (0.75)10 = (.6)8
• (73.75)10 = (111.6)8
Decimal-to-hexadecimal ?

Binary-to-hexadecimal ?

Octal-to-hexadecimal ?

Compliments and negative numbers ?

Binary codes
• Binary coded decimal (BCD)
• The binary coded decimal is a type of binary code used to represent a
given decimal number in an equivalent binary form.
• BCD-Decimal.
• (23.15)10 is written as (0010 0011.0001 0101)BCD

• This is known as the 8421 BCD code starting from MSB to the LSB
• Find out about other BCD codes ?
 Gray code
• It was designed by Frank Gray at Bell Labs and patented in 1953.
• It is an unweighted binary code in which two successive values differ
by 1 bit.
Gray code-binary conversion ?

Binary arithmetic ?

Seven segment display code ?

Computers and Electricity

Gate
A device that performs a basic operation on
electrical signals
Circuits
Gates combined to perform more
complicated tasks

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Computers and Electricity
How do we describe the behavior of gates and circuits?
Boolean expressions
Uses Boolean algebra, a mathematical notation for expressing
two-valued logic
Logic diagrams
A graphical representation of a circuit; each gate has its
own symbol
Truth tables
A table showing all possible input value and the associated
output values

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Gates
Six types of gates
• NOT
• AND
• OR
• XOR
• NAND
• NOR
Typically, logic diagrams are black and white with gates
distinguished only by their shape
We use color for emphasis (and fun)

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 Logic Gates
• In this section, we see that Boolean functions are
implemented in digital computer circuits called gates.
• A gate is an electronic device that produces a result
based on two or more input values.
• In reality, gates consist of one to six transistors, but digital
designers think of them as a single unit.
• Integrated circuits contain collections of gates suited to a
particular purpose.
NOT Gate
A NOT gate accepts one input signal (0 or 1) and returns
the opposite signal as output

Figure 4.1 Various representations of a NOT gate

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AND Gate
An AND gate accepts two input signals
If both are 1, the output is 1; otherwise,
the output is 0

Figure 4.2 Various representations of an AND gate

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OR Gate
An OR gate accepts two input signals
If both are 0, the output is 0; otherwise,
the output is 1

Figure 4.3 Various representations of a OR gate

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XOR Gate
An XOR gate accepts two input signals
If both are the same, the output is 0; otherwise,
the output is 1

Figure 4.4 Various representations of an XOR gate

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XOR Gate
Note the difference between the XOR gate
and the OR gate; they differ only in one
input situation
When both input signals are 1, the OR gate produces a 1
and the XOR produces a 0

XOR is called the exclusive OR

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NAND Gate
The NAND gate accepts two input signals
If both are 1, the output is 0; otherwise,
the output is 1

Figure 4.5 Various representations of a NAND gate

NOR Gate
The NOR gate accepts two input signals
If both are 0, the output is 1; otherwise,
the output is 0

Figure 4.6 Various representations of a NOR gate

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 Logic Gates

• NAND and NOR are

two very important
gates. Their
symbols and truth
tables are shown at
the right.
 Logic Gates

• NAND and NOR are

known as universal
gates because they
are inexpensive to
manufacture and
any Boolean
function can be
constructed using
only NAND or only
NOR gates.
 Logic Gates
• Gates can have multiple inputs and more than
one output.
• A second output can be provided for the
complement of the operation.
• We’ll see more of this later.
Circuits
Combinational circuit
The input values explicitly determine the output
Sequential circuit
The output is a function of the input values and the existing state of the
circuit
We describe the circuit operations using
Boolean expressions
Logic diagrams
Truth tables

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 Combinational Circuits
• We have designed a circuit that implements the
Boolean function:

• This circuit is an example of a combinational logic

circuit.
• Combinational logic circuits produce a specified output
(almost) at the instant when input values are applied.
• In a later section, we will explore circuits where this is not the
case (sequential circuits).
 Combinational Circuits
• We have designed a circuit that implements the
Boolean function:

• This circuit is an example of a combinational logic

circuit.
• Combinational logic circuits produce a specified output
(almost) at the instant when input values are applied.
• In a later section, we will explore circuits where this is not the
case (sequential circuits).
Combinational Circuits
Gates are combined into circuits by using the output of one gate as the
input for another

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Combinational Circuits

Three inputs require eight rows to describe all possible input

combinations
This same circuit using a Boolean expression is (AB + AC)

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Combinational Circuits
Consider the following Boolean expression A(B + C)

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